mm 



Wt*nU)nit*f 




1 i. 



First Lessons 

ln Composition 



,P. aUACKlteOS LL3, 



"X 



jT 



"> 



EDUCATIONAL WORKS. 



ENGLISH. 

Alden's Elements of Intellettnal Philosophy. 

Studies in Bryant. 1 vol., 24mo. 

Arnold's History of Rome. 8vo, cloth. 

Lectures on Modern History. 12mo, cloth. 

Bain's English Composition and Rhetoric. 1 vol., 12rao. 

Mental Science. A Compendium of Psychology and 

History of Philosophy. 1 vol., 12mo. 

— Moral Science. A Compendium of Ethics. 1 vol., 



12mo. 



edi 
Bojesen 

tiqi 
Coming' 

anc 

Xe> 

Cornell'! 



„,i t».i,, ..»;,-.-. v i 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

Ttiul 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



. ,:. „„.„. 

Scries of Onflinr Map-. 



An- 



im.l, 
bats. 



ring. 



Cox's General History of Greece. 1 vol., 12mo, cloth. 
Desehanel's (A. P.) \atural Philosophy. Translated and 
edited, with extensive Additions, l>v J. D. Everett, Pro- 
fessor of Natural Philosophy in the Queen's College, 
Belfast. Complete in Four Parts. Copiously illus- 
trated : 

I. Mechanics, Hydrtsttttcs, and Pneumatic*. Bto, 
II. Heat. 8vo. 
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IV. Sound and light Bto. 

Complete in 1 vol . &vo. With Problems and Index. 

Cloth. 



EDUCATIONAL WORKS. 



Gillespie's Practical Treatise on Surveying. Copiously illus- 
trated. 1 vol., 8vo. 

Higher Surveying. 1 vol., 8vo. 

Graham's English Synonymes. Edited by Prof. Keed, of 

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Greene's History of the Middle Ages. 12mo. 
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History Primers. Edited by J. R. Green, M. A. : 
Greece. By C. A. Fyffe, M. A. 
Rome. By M. Creighton, M. A. 
Europe- By E. A. Freeman, I). C. I., LL. D. 
Old Greek yfe. By A. J. Mahaffy. 32mo, cloth. 
England. By J. R. Green, M. A. 
France. By Charlotte M. Yonge. 
Home Pictures of English Poets. 
How's Shakespearean Reader. 

Huxley and Younians's Elements of Physiology and Hy- 
giene. 
Keightley's Mythology of Greece and Rome. 
Erusi's Inventive and Free-Hand Drawing. 

Synthetic Series. Four Books and Manual. 

Analytic Series. Six Books and Manual. 

Perspective Series. Four Books and Manual. 

Advanced Perspective and Shading Series. Four 

Books and Manual. 

Textile Designs. By Prof. Chas. Kastner, Massachu- 
setts Institute of Technology. Six Books. 

Outline and Relief Designs. By Prof. E. C. Cleaves, 

Cornell University. 

Mechanical Drawing. By Prof. F. B. Morse, Massa- 
chusetts Institute of Technology. 

Architectural Drawing. By Prof. Chas. Babcock, 

Cornell University. Nine Books. 

Machinery. By Prof. J. E. Sweet, Cornell University. 

(In preparation.) 

Civil Engineering. [In preparation.) 

.Ceramic Art. (In preparation.) 

Interior Decorations. (In preparation.) 

Latham's Hand-Book of the English Language. 
Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon. Abridged. 



\ 



FIBST LESSONS 



COMPOSITION, 



WHICH THE PRINCIPLES OF THE AKT ABE DEVELOPED *N 
CONNECTION WITH THE PRINCIPLES OP 



GRAMMAR; 



EMBRACING 



FULL DIRECTIONS ON THE SUBJECT OF PUNCTUATION; 



WITH COPIOUS EXERCISES. 



BY G. p/^UACKENBOS, LL. D., 

PRINCIPAL OF " THE COLLEGIATE SCHOOL," N. Y. ; AUTHOR OF " ADVANCE!} 

COURSE OF COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC," " AS ENGLISH 

GRAMMAR,*" " ILLUSTRATED SCHOOL HISTORY 

OF THE UNTTED STATES," ETC. 




NEW YORK: 

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 

549 A: 551 BROADWAY. 

1879. 

7t 






By the same Author : 

ADVANCED COURSE OF COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC: A Seftei 

of Practical Lessons on tin' Origin, History, ami Peculiarities of the 
English Language, Punctuation, Taste, the Pleasure* of the Imagina- 
tion, Figure.*, Style and its Essential Properties, Criticism, ami the 
various Departments of Prose and Poetical Composition: Illustrated 
with copious Exarcises. 12mo, pp. 450. $1.30. 

FIRST BOOK IN GRAMMAR : lOmo, pp. 120. 1" 

AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR : 12mo, pp. 2SS. BO cts. 

ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Beautifully 
illustrated. Brought down to July, 1883. I6mo, pp. 216, 

ILLUSTRATED SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE DOTTED STATES: 
Embracing a full Account of the Ah trigines, Biographical N 
of Distinguished Men. numerous Maps, Plan- of Battle-fields, and 

Pictorial Illustrations. Brought down to July. 1863. 12m >, p 
$1.30. 

A NATURAL PHILOSOPHY: Embracing the most recent Discoreriet 

in Physics. Adapted to use with or with »ut Apparatus, and 
panied with Practical Exercises and 333 Illustrations. 12mo. p] 
$1.50. 

A PRIMARY ARITHMETIC. Beautifully illustrated. 16mo, pp. 10«. 
22 cts. 

AN ELEMENTARY ARITHMETIC. 12mo, pp. 144. Id 

A PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC. 12mo, pp. 18 Cts, 

A MENTAL ARITHMETIC. Ki:n«» pp. 163. T. eta, 

A HIGHER or COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC, si.io. 



Entered, accordint: to Act of Congress, in the year 1861, by 
G. P. QUACKENB 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the 
Southern District of New York. 



Bhtxbkd, according to \<t ol C< agrees, in ,,M ' >''••' r 1879, '•> 

(.. P. QUACKENBOS. 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, si Washington. 



PKEFACE. 



A County Superintendent of common schools, speaking of 
the important branch of composition, in a communication bear- 
ing date July 27, 1844, uses the following language : " For a 
long time I have noticed with regret the almost entire neglect 
of the art of original composition in our common schools, and 
the want of a proper text-book upon this essential branch of 
education. Hundreds graduate from our common schools with 
no well-defined ideas of the construction of our language." 
The writer might have gone ' further, and said that multitudes 
graduate, not only from common schools, but from some of 
our best private institutions, utterly destitute of all practical 
acquaintance with the subject ; that to many such the compo- 
sition of a simple letter is an irksome, to some an almost 
impossible, task. Yet the reflecting mind must admit that it 
is only this practical application of grammar that renders that 
art useful — that parsing is secondary to composing, and the 
analysis of our language almost unimportant when compared with 
its synthesis. 

One great reason of the neglect noticed above, has, no 
doubt, been the want of a suitable text-book on the subject. 
During the years of the author's experience as a teacher, he 



4 PEEFACE. 

has examined, and practically tested, the various works on com- 
position with which he has met : the result has been a conviction 
that, while there are several publications well calculated to ad- 
vance pupils at the age of fifteen or sixteen, there is not one 
suited to the comprehension of those between nine and twelve ; 
at which time it is his decided opinion this branch should be 
taken up. Heretofore, the teacher has been obliged either to 
make the scholar labor through a work entirely too difficult for 
him, to give him exercises not founded on any regular system, 
or to abandon the branch altogether — and the disadvantages of 
either of these courses are at once apparent. 

It is this conviction, founded on the experience not only 
of the author, but of many other teachers with whom he has 
consulted, that has led to the production of the work now 
offered to the public. It claims to be a first-book in compo- 
sition, and is intended to initiate the beginner, by easy and 
pleasant steps, into that all - important, but hitherto generally 
neglected, art. 

A brief account of the plan and scope of the work may not 
be out of place. It presupposes no knowledge of grammar, 
and is intended to be put into a pupil's hands, as a first-book in 
grammar, at whatever age it is deemed best for him to com- 
mence that study ; say from nine to twelve years, according to 
the degree of intellectual development. In the first fifty pages, 
by means of lessons on the inductive system, and copious 
exercises under each, he is made familiar with the nature and 
use of the different parts of speech, so as to be able to recognize 
them at once, and to supply them when a sentence is rendered 
incomplete by their omission. After this, he is prepared to 
take up a more difficult treatise on grammar ; while in this 
work he is led to consider the different kinds of clauses and 
sentences, and is thus prepared for punctuation, a subject not 



PREFACE. 5 

generally treated in elementary books with the consideration 
which its importance demands. The rules for punctuation have 
been condensed, arranged on a new plan, and, it is hoped, 
rendered intelligible to all. Directions on the subject of capi- 
tal letters follow. A few pages are next devoted to rules, ex- 
planations, and examples, for the purpose of enabling the pupil 
to form and spell correctly such derivative words as having, 
debarring, chatted, and the like, which are not to be found in 
dictionaries, and regarding which the pupil is apt to be led 
astray by the fact that a change is made in the primitive word 
before the addition of a suffix. 

This done, the scholar is prepared to express thoughts in 
his own language, and he is now required to write sentences 
of every kind, a word being given to suggest an idea for each : 
he is taught to vary them by means of different arrangement 
and modes of expression ; to analyze compound sentences into 
simple ones, and to combine simple sentences into compound. 
Several lessons are then devoted to the various kinds of style. 
The essential properties, purity, propriety, precision, clearness, 
strength, harmony, and unity, are next treated, examples for 
correction being presented under each. The different kinds of 
composition follow, and, proper selections having been first 
given as specimens, the pupil is required to compose succes- 
sively letters, descriptions, narrations, biographical sketches, 
essays, and argumentative discourses. After this, the three 
principal figures receive attention ; and the work closes with a 
list of subjects carefully selected, arranged under their proper 
heads, and in such a way that the increase in difficulty is very 
gradual. The author has aimed throughout to awaken thought 
in the pupil, to discipline his mind, and by precept and prac- 
tice to make him acquainted with the construction of his nativo 
tongue. 



6 PREFACE. 

The distinctive features of the work may be briefly enumer- 
ated as follows : the development of the principles of compo- 
sition in connection with those of grammar ; the easy steps by 
which it proceeds according to the inductive system ; the illus- 
tration of every point with exercises, not taken, as has hitherto 
been the general practice, from the time-honored text-book of 
Murray ; the method of analyzing subjects ; and the frequency 
of reviews. Suggestions are scattered through the book, to 
which it may be well for the teacher to attend. The pupil 
should, in all cases, prepare himself to answer the questions in 
each lesson, before he proceeds to the exercise. 

With these brief remarks the author commits his work to 
his professional brethren, respectfully asking them to submit 
it to that practical trial which is, after all, the only true test of 
a school-book's value. 

New York, Jan. Ut } 1851. 



CONTENTS.- 



I. Letters, Vowels, Consonants, Syllables, 
II. Words. — Parts of Speech. — Articles, 

III. Nouns, 

IV. Pronouns, 
V. Adjectives, 

VI. Verbs, 
VII. Adverbs, . 
VIII. Exercise on Adverbs, 
IX. Conjunctions, 
X. Prepositions, . 
XI. Interjections, 
XII. A Review, 

XIII. Miscellaneous Exercise, 

XIV. Miscellaneous Exercise, 
XV. The Subject, 

XVI. Exercise, 
XVII. The Object. — Transitive and Intransitive Verbs, 
XVIII. Personal, Relative, Interrogative, and Adjective 
Pronouns, .... 
XIX. Relative Pronoun and Relative Clause, 
XX. Participles. — Participial Clauses, 
XXI. A Review, ..... 
XXII. Sentences, Phrases, Clauses, Apposition, 

XXIII. Period, Interrogation-point, Exclamation-point, 

XXIV. Colon and Semicolon, 

XXV. Comma, ..... 

XXVI. Exercise in Punctuation, . 
XXVII. Dash, Parentheses, Brackets, 
XXVIII. Other Marks used in Writing, 
XXIX. Exercise in Punctuation, 
XXX. Exercise in Punctuation, . 
XXXI. Rules for the use of Capital Letters, . 
XXXII. A Review, .... 

XXXin. A Review, 
XXXIV. Primitive, Compound, and Derivative Words. — 

Analysis. — Accent, 
XXXV. Spelling.— Rules, 
XXXVI. Subject and Predicate, 
XXXVII. Exercise in Sentences, 

XXXVIII. Sentences containing Relative and Participial 

Clauses, ..... 

XXXIX. Sentences containing Adverbial and Vocative 

Clauses, 



11 
13 
15 
18 
19 
21 
24 
25 
27 
29 
32 
33 
34 
34 



42 

45 
4*7 
50 
51 
55 
57 
58 
62 
63 
65 
67 
69 
70 
72 
74 



77 
80 



CONTENTS. 



LESSON. I'AGK. 

XL. Different Kinds of Sentences, . . 86 

XLI. Exercise in Sentences, . . . .87 

XLII. Formation of Sentences, . . . 88 

XLIII. Variety of Arrangement, . . . .89 

XLIV. Variety of Arrangement, ... 90 

XLV. Variety of Expression, 

X L VI . Variety of Expression, 

XLVII. Synonymes, 

XL VIII. Exercise in Synonymes, 

XLIX. Circumlocution, 

L. Analysis of Compound Sentences, 
LI. Synthesis of Simple Sentences, 
LII. Style, . 
LIII. Purity, 
LIV. Propriety, 
LV. Precision, 
LVI. Clearness, 
LVII. Clearness, 
LVIII. Strength, 
LIX. Strength, . 
LX. Harmony, 
LXI. Unity, 
LXII. A Review, 
LXIII. Different Kinds of Composition. — Analysis of 

Subjects, 
LXIV. Letter-writing, 
LXV. Letter-writing, 
LXVI. Exercise in Letter-writing, 
LXVII. Description, 
LXVIII. Exercise in Description, 
LXIX. Description of Natural Scenery, 
LXX. Exercise in Description of Natural Scenery, 
LXXI. Description of Persons, . 
LXXII. Exercises in Description, 
LXXIII. Narration, 

LXXIV. Exercise in Historical Narration, 
LXXV. Exercise in Historical Narration, 
LXXVI. Biographical Sketches, 
LXXVII. Exercise in Biographical Narration, 
LXXVIII. Fiction, . . 

LXXIX. Essays, .... 
LXXX. Exercise in Essay-writing, 
LXXXI. Argumentative Discourses, 
LXXXII. Figures.— Simile, 
LXXXI 1 1. Metaphor, 

LXXXIV. Exercise in Metaphorical Language, 
LXXXV. Personification, 

A List of Subjects, 



FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 



LESSON I. 

LETTEES, VOWELS, CONSONANTS, SYLLABLES. 

What is a Letter ? 

A Letter is a character used to represent a 
sound of the human voice. 

How many letters are there in the English language ? 

Twenty-six. 

Repeat them. 

A, 5, c, d, e,f 9 g, h, ij, 7c, I, m, n, o,p, q, r, s, 

t, u, v, w, x, y, 0. 

What are the letters, when taken together in their regular or- 
der, as above, called ? 

The Alphabet. 

How many of these letters can be sounded alone ? 

Five. 

Which are they ? 

A, e, i, o, u. 

What do we call these ? 

YOWELS. 

What is a Vowel ? 

A Vowel is a letter that represents a complete 
sound. 



10 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

Try to sound b. Can it be sounded alone ? * 

No ; not unless a vowel is joined to it. 

What are such letters as can not be sounded alone, called ? 

Consonants. 

What is a Consonant ? 

A Consonant is a letter that does not repre- 
sent a complete sound. 

Are there any letters which are sometimes vowels, and at 
other times consonants ? 

Yes ; w and y. 

In the word kindly, how many distinct sounds are there ? 

Two ; hind and ly. 

What are these parts forming distinct sounds called ? 

Syllables. 

What is a Syllable ? 

A Syllable is one or more letters combined so 
as to form a distinct sound. 

Divide the word ramrod into syllables. Ram-rod. Divide the 
word minister into syllables. Min-is-ter. Divide the word siskr 
into syllables ; Henry ; sickness ; manful ; manfully ; elephant ; wil- 
derness ; contemplate; circumstance; commiserate; Constantinople. 

You have said that w and y are sometimes vowels, and at 
other times consonants ; when are they consonants ? 

When they begin a syllable. 

When are w and y vowels ? 

"When they do not begin a syllable. 

Is w a vowel or a consonant in wine? in toi/i 9 in m 
westerly? in Yorktown? in bow? in world? in William? in water 
works ? in saw ? in wave ? 

Is y a vowel or a consonant in youth? in Marjft in l><>y? in 
yesterday? in New York? in yawn? vatyUablt ? 

How many and which of the letters are always vowels ? 

Five ; a, e, i, o, u. 

* The teacher will do well to make the pupil thoroughly un- 
derstand the difference between the name of a letter anil its 
8oimd, and to illustrate the point with examples. 



WORDS. PARTS OF SPEECH. ARTICLES. 11 

How many and which of the letters are vowels, when they do 
not stand at the commencement of a word or syllable ? 

Two ; w and y. 

How many and which are always consonants ? 

Nineteen ; 5, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, £, m, n,p, q, r, s, t, 

v. a?, z. 



LESSON II. 

WORDS.-PARTS OF SPEECH.-ARTICXES. 

What do you use, when you want to speak your thoughts ? 

"Words. 

What is a Word ? 

A Word is what is spoken or written as the 
sign of an idea ; as, hook. 

How are words divided ? 

Into different classes, called parts of speech. 

How many parts of speech are there, and what are they called ? 

Nine : viz., Article, Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, 
Yerb, Adverb, Conjunction, Preposition, and In- 
terjection. 

What is the first part of speech ? 

The Article. 

What is an Article ? 

An Article is a word placed before another 
word, to show whether it is used in a particular, or 
in a general, sense. 

How many articles are there ? 

Two ; The, and An or A. 

When we say the man, what do we mean ? 

Some particular man. 

When we say a man, do we refer to a particular man ? 

No ; to any man. 



12 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

What is the called, and why ? 

The is called the Definite Article, because it de- 
fines or points out a particular object. 

What is an or a called, and why ? 

An or a is called the Indefinite Article, because 
it does not define or point out any particular object. 

Are a and an the same article ? 

Yes ; they are different forms of the same article. 

Where is a used ? 

A is used before a word commencing with a con- 
sonant, or a consonant sound; 2&,agoat,abencli,a vm H. 

What vowels standing at the commencement of a word, have 
a consonant sound ? 

£7"long (as in unit), and eu, when they stand at 
the commencement of a word, are pronounced as if 
the consonant y stood before them ; thus, unit, use, 
eulogy, Europe. 

Do you use a or an, then, before words commencing with u 
long and eu ? 

A ; because such words commence with a con- 
sonant sound ; as, a unit, a eulogy. 

Where is an used ? 

Before words commencing with a vowel, or with 
an h that is not sounded; as, an enemy, an ink- 
stand, an hour, an heir. 

Mention again before what words a is used. 
Before what words is an used ? 



The pupil must in no case attempt to write the Exercise until 
he is fully prepared to answer the questions that precede it. 

* It is intended that all parts of this work headed ExKiu'ist: 
should be written at home, and brought to the teacher fur eur 



13 



Insert the definite article before each of the fol- 
lowing words : — 

mouse, lady, tigers, steamboat, clock, 

squirrels, book, cloak, rhinoceros, woman, 

inkstand, pencils, boy, elephant, goose, 

teachers, thief, girl, balloons, drama. 

Insert the indefinite article before each of the 
following nouns, being careful to follow the direc- 
tions given above for the use of a and an : — 

hermit, wilderness, hurricane, eulogy, 

apple, upstart, alligator, festival, 

urchin, wonder, hundred, husband, 

hunter, urn, youngster, Indian, 

yeoman, ewe, waterman, hyacinth. 



LESSON III. 

NOUNS. 

What is the second part of speech ? 

The Noun-. 

What is your name ? What is the name of the state in which 
tou live ? What word means the same as name? 

Noun. 

What, then, may your name and that of your state be called ? 

Nouns. 



rection. It will be well for him to underline such words as are 
misspelled or improperly used, and require the pupil to correct 
them himself. 



14 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

What is a Noun ? 

A Noun is the name of any person, place, or 
thing ; as, James, Boston, tench. 

To show that you understand this, mention three nouns, the 
names of persons ; three, the names of places ; three, the names 
of things. 

How many classes of nouns are there ? 

Two ; Common and Proper. 

What is a Common Noun ? 

A Common Noun is a name that distinguishes 
one class of tilings from another; as, man, city, rwk r. 

What is a Proper Noun ? 

A Proper Noun is a name that distinguishes 

one individual of a class from another; as Byron, 
Brooklyn, Hudson. 

How do proper nouns always commence ? 

With a capital letter. 

Is chair a proper or a common noun? lion? George? Alj>$? 
Connecticut ? factory ? Wednesday ? summer ? 



EXERCISE. 

Write out a list of the nouns in the following 
sentences, commencing the common nouns with 
small letters, and the proper nouns with capitals : — 

1. George is going to Boston on Monday. 

2. Many towns and villages are situated on the 
Mohawk. 

3. Victoria is queen of England. 

4. We like the city better than the country. 

5. Grammar is an important study. 

6. Bees make honey, and lay it up in hives. 

Complete the following sentences by inserting 



pronouns. 15 

in place of the dash,* a noun, common or proper, 
as the sense may require : — 

The Teacher, in correcting the exercises, will see that the punc- 
tuation of the book is followed. Rules on this subject will be 
furnished hereafter. 

Example. are ripe in summer. 

Completed. Blackberries are ripe in summer. 

7. is one of the United States of America. 

8. In summer, the are unable to endure the 

heat of the , and retire into the . 

9. The elephant is one of the largest of ; he 

has a rough of a dark ; his are small, but 

bright and penetrating ; he moves his like a fan, 

to drive away flies from his . With his trunk he 

raises food to his , and draws to quench his 

. When he is tamed, he obeys his , and at his 

will kneel to receive a . Elephants are said 

to live more than a hundred . 



LESSON IV. 

PRONOUNS. 

"When I say, " John learns his lesson," what does the word his 
stand for ? 

John's. 

How would the sentence read, if we should use John's instead 
of Ms? 

John lecvrns John's lesson. 

* Note. A dash is a short horizontal line ( ). 



16 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

What part of speech is John's, and why ? 

A noun ; because it is the name of a person. 

What is a word that stands instead of a noun, called ? 

A Pronoun. 

What is a Pronoun ? 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 

Why is a pronoun used instead of a noun ? 

Because it would not sound well to have the 
noun repeated too often. 

Give an example. 

John respects Johrts father, John's motlier, and 
John's teacher. 

How does this sentence read, when the pronoun is used in- 
stead of John's ? 

Name some of the principal pronouns. 

I, my, mine, me, we, our, ours, us, thou, thy, thine, 
thee, you, your, yours, he, his, him, she, her, hers, it, 
its, they, their, theirs, them, who, which, that. 

Mention the pronouns in the following sentences, and, as you 
name each, tell the noun for which it stands : — 

1. James, who had studied hard, recited liis lesson 
well. 

2. Mary is a good girl, for she obeys her parents. 

3. Be virtuous, and you will obtain your reward. 

4. James and George have performed the task 
which I gave them. 

What is a noun ? 

What is a pronoun ? 

Mention again some of the pronouns that arc most in use. 

EXERCISE. 

Where a dash occurs, insert the proper pronoun. 

Example. This apple is mine, but will give it 

to . 



PRONOUNS. 17 

Completed. This apple is mine, but J will give it 
to you. 

1. William asked father to take into the 

country. 

2. I love friends. 

3. Julia has gone to dinner. 

4. Where is hat ? I hung on the nail. 

5. Parents love children, and take care of . 

6. John, where are going ? 

7. We gave the poor woman a penny, and she put 
into bag. 

8. Here is a bird's nest I found in the woods. 

is made of straw and moss, the old birds 

find in the fields. 

9. Jane and brother have gone to cousin's. 

10. I will give you a handsome prize, if are a 

diligent boy and attend to duties. 

11. The man is honest, will be respected by 

all acquaintances. 

12. Washington, in youth, and throughout 

whole life, adhered strictly to the truth, and thus 

set an example which ought to follow. 

13. If we think we never do wrong, deceive 

ourselves, for almost every moment are guilty of sin. 

14. We ought to remember the favors which are 
conferred on by friends. 

15. Nature is before us, and invites to con- 
template the greatness and goodness of Creator. 

16. Miss Pardoe, in book of Travels, gives 

many interesting particulars respecting the Turks, their 

habits, religion, and government. says 

that one of the most attractive features in charac- 
ter is the respect they entertain for the aged. 



18 FLBST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 



LESSON V. 

ADJECTIVES. 

What is the fourth part of speech called ? 

The Adjective. 

In the sentence, " Be a good boy" which word is a noun ? 
"Why is it a noun ? 

Which word describes boy, or tells what kind of a boy is 
meant ? 

Good. 

What is good called ? 

An Adjective. 

What is an Adjective ? 

An Adjective is a word used to describe or limit 
a nonn or pronoun ; as, a had man, an active oh Ud, 
John is obedient. In these sentences, had, active, 
and obedient are adjectives. 

What do adjectives sometimes express besides quality ? 

Number ; as, three men, the fourth row. Three 
and fourth are adjectives. 

What are adjectives that express number, called ? 

Numeral Adjectives. 

Mention three adjectives. Mention three numeral adjectives. 



Complete the following sentences by inserting 
an adjective in place of each dash. No adjective 
must be repeated ; find a new one in each case 

Example. A cow. With an adjective in- 
serted, a fat cow ; or, a lean cow ; or, a small cow ; 
or, a white cow. 

1. It is a day ; the weather is . 






VERBS. 19 

2. Columbus was the man that crossed the 

. ocean. 

3. The whale is a animal; with his tail he 

often upsets boats, and destroys men. 

4. In a garden we see many flowers ; the 

rose, the violet, and the lily. 

5. "We live in a house, which has stories. 

6. I saw a company of soldiers, well armed 

with rifles. 

7. He has walked a distance, and is . 

8. Be to your teachers, and to your pa- 
rents. 

9. He that is and when he is young, will 

be when he is old. 

10. "William has a dog, a Mtten, and a 

horse. 

11. I found some apples, and pears, in 

the orchard. 

12. In the "West Indies, they have very weather 

and storms. The climate is considered for 

sick persons. 



LESSON VI. 

VERBS. 

What is the fifth part of speech called ? 

The Verb. 

In the sentence, " Jane eats cake," which word tells us what 
Jane does ? 

Eats. 

In the sentence, " Mary sleeps," which word tells us the stato 
Mary is in ? 



20 FIBST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

Sleeps. 

What do we call eats and deeps ? 

Verbs. 

What is a Verb ? 

A Verb is a word that affirms an action or a 
state. 

In the sentence, " John is good," what part of speech is John, 
and why ? What is is, and why ? What is good, and why ? 
Mention in order the verbs in the following sentences : — 
Oxen are large and strong animals ; they submit to 
the yoke, plough the fields, and draw heavy carts. The 
farmer fattens them, kills them for food, and takes them 
to market. 



Where a dash occurs, insert a verb that will 
complete the sense. 

Example. The oak a firm root, and the 

winter storm. 

Completed. The oak has a firm root, and ?'esists 
the winter storm. 

1. The horse a noble and useful animal. He 

can or , and at the same time a man 

on his back, or a wagon behind him. 

2. "Wandering Arabs in the desert. They 

themselves near the springs, and travellers 

when they stop to water. 

3. A farmer a snake, almost frozen to death, 

under a hedge ; moved with compassion, he it up, 

it to his house, and it near the fire. No 

sooner did the heat to revive it, than the snake 

upon his wife, one of his children, and 

the whole family into terror and confusion. " Ungrate- 



ADVERBS. . 21 

ful wretch ! " the farmer ; " I find it useless 

to favors on the undeserving." With these words 

he a hatchet, and the snake into pieces. 

4. In autumn, the farmer his harvest, and 

it away in barns. The leaves from the trees, and 

the wind through the branches. 

5. Whatever you to do, it quickly ; never 

till to-morrow what to-day. 

6. Let us early, to see the sun . 

7. Cows milk, which into butter and cheese. 

8. He to the concert, to Jenny Land sing. 



LESSON VII. 

ADVERBS. 

What is the sixth part of speech called ? 

The Adverb. 

What is the meaning of the word adverb ? 

Joined to a verb. 

Why are adverbs joined to verbs ? 

To modify them. 

In the sentence, " George struggled hard," what word tells 
how he struggled ? 

Hcwd. 

Then hard is joined to, or modifies, what word ? 

The verb struggled. 

What part of speech, then, is hard? 

An adverb. 

Are adverbs ever joined to any other words besides verbs ? 

Yes; adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and 
other adverbs. 

In the sentence, " George struggled very hard" what word tells 
how hard George struggled ? 



22 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

Very, 

Then very is joined to hard ; what part of speech is hard? 

An adverb. 

Then since very is joined to the adverb hard, what part of 
speech is it ? 

An adverb. 

In the sentence, " John is very obedient" to what word is very 
joined ? 

To the adjective obedient. 

What part of speech is it, then ? 

An adverb. 

What is an Adverb ? 

An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an 
adjective, or another verb. 

Select the adverbs in the following sentences, and tell what 
words they modify : — 

1. John walks gracefully. 

2. He studies very hard, and stands well in his class. 

3. I like him very much. 

Mention some of the principal classes of adverbs. 

1. Adverbs of manner, which end for the most part 
in ly; as, swiftly, boldly, quickly, slowly, handsomely, &c. 

2. Adverbs of time; as, now, then, yesterday, to-day, 
to-morrow, immediately, often, always, never, ever, again, 
soon, seldom, hitherto, &c. 

3. Adverbs of place ; as, hero, there, hither, thither, 
whither, hence, thence, where, and its compounds 
nowhere, elsewhere, everywhere, &c. 

4. Adverbs of quantity ; as, much, little, enough, &c, 

5. Adverbs of degree ; as, very, almost, nearly, fta 
What other words express manner, and are therefore liable 

to be confounded with adverbs of manner ? 

Adjectives. 

What is the difference between them ? 

An adjective is used to describe a noun; an 



ADVEEBS. 23 

adverb, to describe or modify a verb, an adjective, 
or another adverb. 

How can you tell them apart ? 

When a word expressing manner is joined to a 
nonn or pronoun, it is an adjective ; when it is 
joined to a verb, adjective, or adverb, it is an adverb. 



Make a list, in order, of the adjectives that oc- 
cur in the following sentences. Make a separate 
list of the adverbs, in order : — 

1. I will assist you most cheerfully, if you will be 
careful and attentive. 

2. Those who are virtuous may not always be happy 
here, but they will certainly receive their reward here- 
after. 

3. Large armies generally march slowly. 

4. He who forms conclusions too quickly, often 
forms them incorrectly. 

5. If you are attentive, you will learn grammar 
very fast. 

6. I have heard better singing to-day than I ever 
heard before. 

7. He who tries hard, seldom fails to succeed. 

8. Quicksilver is a very valuable metal ; it has hither- 
to been imported chiefly from Spain, Germany, and Peru. 

9. The Portuguese were once the most enterprising 
navigators of Europe ; they founded colonies in many 
parts of the world, before totally unknown. 

10. The Bedouin Arabs are, for the most part, 
small, meagre, and tawny. 

11. The early hours of sleep are the most sweet 
and refreshing. 



24 FIKST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

LESSON VIII. 

EXERCISE ON ADVERBS. 

What is an adverb ? * 
What are the principal classes of adverbs ? 
Mention three adverbs of manner; three of time; three of 
place ; three of quantity ; three of degree. 

What is the difference between an adjective and an adverb ? 



Where a dash occurs, insert an adverb that will 
complete the sense. 

Example. I walked . 

Completed. I walked briskly. 

1. Mary sings , and dances . 

2. The house is tall, and is built. 

3. We are going to the grave. 

4. I saw him ; he was running down 

Broadway. 

5. Listen , and you will be able to un- 
derstand the subject. 

6. Caesar started in pursuit ; he overtook 

the enemy, led on the attack in person, and gained 

a complete victory. 

7. Time past returns ; improve the moments, 

therefore, as as you can. 

8. The horse trotted . John ate . 

9. The lion roars . The kitten plays . 

* Note to the Pupil. When a question is repeated, and you have 
forgotten the answer, look back and find it, in order that you may 
give it in the precise words of the book. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 25 

10. The rain began to fall , and they were 

wet. 

11. The poor dog was hurt. 

12. This room will hold twenty persons very . 

13. He gave the poor woman his purse. 

14. When are you going ? . (Insert an adverb 

as an answer.) 

15. Do you see him ? Yes ; he is . 



LESSON IX. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

What is the seventh part of speech called ? 

The Conjunction. 

When I say, " Mary learns her lessons" what is the expression 
called ? 

A Sentence. 

What is a Sentence ? 

A Sentence is such an assemblage of words as 
makes complete sense. 

Would "Mary to the fair " be a sentence? 

No ; because it would not make complete sense. 

Make a complete sentence of it. 

" Mary has gone to the fair P 

In the sentence, " James got up early, and went to market" how 
many parts are there, and what are they ? 

Two ; " James got up early " is one, " went to 
market " is the other. 

What are such parts of a sentence called ? 

Clauses. 

What word connects the two clauses in the above sentence ? 

And. 



26 FIRST LESSONS LN COMPOSITION. 

What does the word conjunction mean ? 

A connecting together. 

What, then, ma) r and, and all such words as connect clauses, 
be called ? 

Conjunctions. 

Do conjunctions ever connect any thing else besides clauses ? 

Yes ; conjunctions connect words also. 

Give me a sentence in which there is a conjunction connecting 
words. 

" Mary turned and wept ; " here the conjunction 
and connects the verbs turned and wept. 

Give me another. 

George and Henry have gone to Boston ; " here 
the conjunction and connects the nouns George and 
Henry. 

Now tell me, what is a Conjunction ? 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect other 
words and clauses. 

Mention some of the principal Conjunctions. 

And, because, if, that, or, nor, either, neither, 
but, lest, notwithstanding, therefore, though, unless, 
than, as. 

What is a sentence ? 

What is a clause ? 

What is a conjunction ? 



Where a dash occurs, insert a conjunction that 
will complete the sense. 

Example. He went to the ball, lie was or- 
dered to remain. 

Completed. He went to the ball, although he was 
ordered to remain. 



PREPOSITIONS. 27 

1. Either you must go, I. John Mary 

are here. 

2. Neither the wagon the carriage has arrived. 

3. We will not go a fishing, it rains. 

4. Hannibal took an oath he would conquer 

the Romans. 

5. He did not get a premium, he did not de- 
serve it. 

6. Mary has excellent parents, she is a bad girl. 

7. Ho not buy the book you can get it for a 

shilling. 

8. I like to see a hard shower, I never walk 

out in one. 

9. My father mother are going to Boston to- 
morrow, it be clear. 

10. Let those who stand, beware they fall. 

11. The happy often forget others are miserable, 

12. General Taylor defeated the Mexicans, his 

army was much smaller theirs. 

13. None will deny the hawk flies more swift- 
ly the pigeon. 

14. you do your duty, you will not be blamed. 

15. I saw my cousin I was turning the corner. 



LESSON X. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

What is the eighth part of speech called ? 

The Preposition. 

In the sentence, " William walked to Albany" what word shows 
the relation between William } s walking and Albany ? 

To. 



28 



FIKST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 



How is this word to placed ? 

Before the noun Albany. 

What does the word preposition mean ? 

A placing before. 

What, then, may we call to, and all similar words ? 

Prepositions. 

What is a Preposition ? 

A Preposition is a word placed before a noun or 
pronoun, to show the relation between it and some 
other word or words in the sentence. 

Mention the principal prepositions.* 



Among, 


behind, 


for, 


through, 


around, 


below, 


from, 


throughout, 


about, 


beneath, 


in, 


to, 


above, 


beside, 


into, 


toward, 


across, 


between, 


instead of, 


up, 


according to, 


beyond, 


near, 


upon, 


after, 


by, 


of, 


under, 


against, 


concerning, 


on, 


unto, 


amidst, 


down, 


out of, 


with, 


at, 


during, 


over, 


within, 


before, 


except, 


respecting, 


without. 



EXERCISE. 

Wherever a dash occurs, insert a preposition 
that will complete the sense. 

Example. Nothing can be accomplished an 

effort. 

Completed. Nothing can be accomplished icitJiout 
an effort. 

1. In Greenland, the people live wretched huts. 

* It will be well to commit this list to memory. 



INTERJECTIONS. 29 

2. A steamboat runs Providence New 

York. 

3. the summer, the cattle love to lie shady 

trees. 

4. The camel has a hump his back. 

5. patience and perseverance you may attain 

the highest station society. 

6. He gave the book me, and I placed it 

the table. 

7. You must do sums the rule. 

8. It is dark sunset. 

9. She lives Piermont, twenty-five miles 

New York. 

10. A large rock hangs the path. 

11. The sailor likes to get port. 

12. Always keep virtue and duty your eyes. 

13. I live my father. 

14. A farmer was bitten a snake, while he was 

standing the weeds. 

15. The ferry-boat will take us ■ the river. 



LESSON XI. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

What is the ninth and last part of speech ? 

The Interjection. 

In the sentence, " Alas ! I am undone," what word is thrown 
in to express the sorrow of the speaker ? 

Alas ! 

What does the word interjection mean ? 

A throwing in. 



30 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

What, then, may alas f and similar words be called ? 

Interjections. 

What is an Interjection ? 

An Interjection is a word used to express some 
sudden feeling of the speaker. 

What are the principal feelings which are expressed by inter- 
jections ? 

Sorrow, triumph, disgust, wonder ; there are 
also interjections of calling, of attention, of salut- 
ing, of taking leave. 

Mention the principal interjections of sorrow. 

Oh ! ah ! alas ! alack ! 

Mention those expressing triumph. 

Hurrah ! huzza ! bravo ! aha ! 

Mention those expressing disgust. 

Fy ! fudge ! pshaw ! tush ! away ! begone ! 

Mention those expressing wonder. 

Indeed ! strange ! what ! 

Mention those of calling. 

Hallo ! ho ! 

Mention those of attention. 

Behold ! lo ! hark ! listen ! see ! hush ! hist ! 

Mention those of saluting. 

O ! (0 is always used with a pronoun, or the 
name of an object addressed ; as, thou ! 
James !) welcome ! hail ! 

Mention those of taking leave. 

Adieu ! farewell ! good b'ye ! 

What mark is that ( ! ) which you see placed alter each of the 
above interjections ? 

An Exclamation-point. 

When you write an interjection, what must you place after it t 

An exclamation-point. 



INTERJECTIONS. 31 

In the exercise that follows, how will you know which of the 
above interjections to insert in place of the dash ? 

I will read the whole sentence, and put in an 
interjection that is appropriate. Tims, if the sen- 
tence express sorrow, I will insert an interjection of 
sorroiv ; if wonder ', I will insert one of wonder, &c. 

EXEECISE. 

"Where a dash occurs, insert a suitable interjec- 
tion. 

Example. ! the victory is ours ! 

Completed. Hurrah! the victory is ours! 

1. ! I am surprised at this. 

2. My house is on fire ; ! I am undone. 

3. ! what strange figure is this that is ap- 
proaching ? 

4. ! my friend ; I am glad to see you. 

5. ! the cannon are booming; the battle has 

begun. 

6. ! dishonest wretch ; I despise thee ! 

7. ! our friend has conquered. 

8. ! stranger ; will you tell a traveller where he is ? 

9. ! no one can tell how much the poor suffer. 

10. ! is it thus you behave ? 

11. I hope you may have a pleasant journey. ! 

12. ! what noise was that ? 

13. ! poor fellow ! I am sorry for him. 

14. ! John, where are you going ? 

15. Who is that ? ! he is descending the hill. 

16. ! is it really so? Impossible ! 

17. ! thou blessed sun, that spreadest gladness 

over the earth. 

18. ! I am at the head of my class. 



32 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

LESSON XII. 

A REVIEW. 

[The pupil has answered all the questions given below, as 
they occurred in the preceding lessons ; but as he may have for- 
gotten some of them, he must look back for the answers, and 
learn them carefully.] 

What is a letter ? 

What is a vowel ? Name the vowels. 

What is a consonant ? Name the consonant?. 

What two letters are sometimes vowels, and at other times 
consonants ? 

When are they vowels, and when consonants ? 

What is a syllable ? 

What is a word ? 

How many parts of speech are there ? Mention them. 

What is an article? Mention the articles. Which of these 
is the indefinite article, and which the definite ? 

What is a noun ? Give an example. 

How many kinds of nouns are there ? What is a proper noun ? 
What is a common noun ? Give examples. 

What is a pronoun ? Mention some of the principal pronouns. 

What is an adjective ? Give an example. 

What is a verb ? Give an example. 

What is an adverb ? Give an example. Mention the different 
kinds of adverbs, and give an example of each. 

What is the difference between adjectives and adverbs ? 

What is a sentence ? 

What are distinct parts of sentences called ? 

What is a conjunction ? Mention some of the principal con- 
junctions. 

What is a preposition ? Mention some of the principal prep- 
ositions. 

What is an interjection ? What are the principal classes of 
interjections ? Mention one of each class. 

What mark is placed after an interjection ? 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE. 33 

LESSON XIII. 

• MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE. 

In this lesson and the next, the pupil, wherever a dash occurs, 
must insert whatever part of speech is required to complete the 
sense. Follow the spelling and punctuation of the book. 

MARTINS. 

Martins a kind of swallows. They feed 

flies, , and other insects, and skim swiftly through 

■ air, in pursuit of their prey. In the morning 

are up by daybreak, and twitter about your window, 
while are asleep bed. They are harm- 
less, and, as people do not molest them, they build 

their in towns villages. They are small birds, 

but a great deal. I will — — a couple of stories, 

illustrating their sagacity. 

A pair of martins, who their nest in porch, 

had some young ones ; and happened that one of 

them, in to climb the side, fell out, and strik- 
ing the stones, was killed. The old , 

seeing this accident, went and strong pieces of 

straw, and fastened them mud all around the , 

in order to keep the from meeting a similar . 

Here is another about them. While a martin 

was absent from his nest, one day, a cock-sparrow 

took possession it ; when the owner and 

to enter, he put out bill, and commenced 

pecking at him. The martin, not pleased with 

this invasion of his , flew away, and a number 

of his companions. They all came the nest, with 

bits of clay in their , with which plastered 

up the to the nest ; so the sparrow, unable 

to food and air, died. 

2* 



34 FIRST LESSONS LN COMPOSITION. 

LESSON XIV. 

EXERCISE. 
THE DUKE AND THE GALLEY-SLAVES. 

The King of Spain once gave to Duke of 

Ossuna to release such of the galley-slaves as might 

think proper. The Duke, as he among the slaves 

who were at the oars, asked them in succession of 

what crime they had guilty. They all protested 

innocence, and him that they had been unjustly 

. One attributed his condemnation to the 

of an enemy, another to the of his judge. At last, 

however, he one who admitted that, to save his 

from starving, he had robbed a man of , on 

highway. The Duke, he heard this, gave 

him a stroke the back his hand, and said, 

" Get you gone, you rogue, from the of honest 

men." So who confessed fault was released, 

while the , for their want of , were compelled 

to at their labors. 

Thus we see we are not likely to lose any 

thing by a admission of faults. 



LESSON XV. 

THE SUBJECT. 

Wheh I say, u Charles walks" who is it that I Bpeak about? 
Charles. 

In the sentence, u Tlic oak has been ait down," what is it that I 
speak about? 



THE SUBJECT. 35 

The oak. 

What do we call Charles, oak, and all words respecting which 
an action or state is affirmed ? 

Subjects. 

What is the Subject of a verb ? 

The Subject of a verb is that respecting which the 
action or state expressed by the verb is affirmed. 

How may you always find the subject of a verb ? 

Put the word who or what before the verb, and 
the answer to the question will be the subject. 

Give an example. In the sentence, "John went to market," 
what is the subject ? 

Put who before the verb, and the answer to the 
question will be the subject. Thus, " Who went to 
market ? " Answer, John. John is the subject. 

In the sentence, " Virtue is a source of happiness," find the 
subject in the same manner as above. 

Put what before the verb ; " What is a source of 
happiness % " Answer, Virtue. Virtue is the subject. 

In the same manner select the subjects in the following sen- 
tences : — 

Bees make honey. Virginia is a large state. 

Quarrels are unpleasant. Charles was late at school. 

The flute makes fine music. We are tired of walking. 

The machine was invented in England. You are 
wrong. 

Gratitude is a noble feeling. Science enlarges the mind. 

They are very sick. We were disappointed. 

In the last two sentences, what are the subjects ? 

They and we. 

What part of speech are they and we ? 

Pronouns. 

May pronouns, then, be the subjects of a verb ? 

They may. 



36 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

In the sentence, " To steal is base" find the subject as above. 

Put what before the verb : " What is base ? " 
Answer, to steal. To steal is the subject. 

What part of speech is steal? 

A verb, because it expresses action. 

When a verb has to before it, we say that it is in the infinitive 
mood ; may a verb in the infinitive mood, then, be the subject of 
another verb ? 

It may. 

What mood is a verb in, when it has to before it ? 

A verb is in the infinitive mood, when it has to 
before it. 

How may we know when a verb is in the infinitive mood ? 

By seeing whether it has to before it. 

Is to play in the infinitive mood? to jump? to walk? Mention 
six more verbs in the infinitive mood. 

May a verb in the infinitive mood be the subject of another 
verb ? 

It may. 

Give me several examples, and mention the subject. 

To lie is dishonorable : here, to lie is the subject, 
To trowel is pleasant : to travel is the subject. 

Make three short sentences of your own, like the above, in 
which a verb in the infinitive mood will be the subject of another 
verb, and mention the subject in each sentence. 

In the sentence, " Wheflier we shall go to Boston is uncertain" 
find the subject in the manner described above. 

Put what before the verb : " What is uncertain ? " 
Answer, whether we shall go to Boston. These 
words, therefore, whether we shall go to Boston, are 
the subject. 

These words form part of a sentence ; may, then, part of a 
sentence be the subject of a verb ? 

It may. 

Find, as above, the subjects in the following sentences : — 



THE SUBJECT. 37 

1. To fall from the top of a church-steeple, is certain 
death. 

2. For a weak nation to provoke a strong one, is 
bad policy. 

3. That even the best men commit sin, is proved 
by daily experience. 

Now, let us see, what have we found that a verb may have for 
its subject ? 

A verb may have for its subject, 
I. A noun ; as, John walks. 
II. A pronoun ; as, They have gone. 

III. A verb in the infinitive mood ; as, To dig 
is hard work. 

IV. Part of a sentence ; as, Doing onds duty 
secures happiness. 

Select the subject in each of the sentences just given as examples. 
EXEKCISE. 

Select and write out the subject in each of the 
following sentences ; if you are in doubt, put who 
or what before the verb, as directed above : — 

Example. Working in quicksilver mines is very 
injurious to the health. 

Subject. Working in quicksilver mines. 

1. We should improve our time. 

2. Digging potatoes is hard work. 

3. To reveal a friend's secrets is dishonorable. 

4. Cicero was a celebrated orator. 

5. Wealth does not always procure esteem. 

6. Temperance and exercise preserve health. 

7. Time and tide wait for no man. 

8. For an ignorant person to profess td teach phi- 
losophy, only exposes him to ridicule. 



38 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

9. Whether it will rain, is uncertain. 

10. John and I will start in the morning. 

11. Where are the women going? 

12. To be wise in his own eyes, is the mark of a fool. 



LESSON XVI. 

EXERCISE. 

Where a dash occurs, insert a subject ; either a 
noun, a pronoun, a verb in the infinitive mood, or 
part of a sentence, as may be required to complete 
the sense. 

Example. and lead to wealth. 

Completed. Industry and frugality lead to wealth. 

1. and gnaw holes in the floor. 

2. , , and , are used for drawing loads. 

3. * is dishonorable. 

4. am going to school. 

5. is a useful study. 

6. Has the arrived ? 

7. attends carefully to his lessons. 

8. Have written your exercise ? 

9. and are made from milk. 

10. * is a proof of dishonesty. 

11. * is the practice of a bad boy. 

12. * is unpleasant work. 

13. * is the business of the baker. 

14. marched by with a fine band of music. 

* Here the pupil must insert a verb in the infinitive mood or 
part of a sentence. 



THE OBJECT. 39 



LESSON XVII. 

THE OBJECT.-TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE 
VERBS. 

In the sentence, " Charles killed a fly? what word expresses 
the object on which the action is exerted ? 

The word fly. 

What do we callj%, in this sentence? 

Fly is the object of the verb killed. 

In the sentence, " Children love milk? what is the object of the 
verb love? 

Milk. 

What is the Object of a verb ? 

The Object of a verb is that on which the action 
expressed by the verb is exerted. 

What is the object in each of the following sentences ? 
Bees make honey. Birds build nests. 

Mary kindled the fire. I have broken my knife. 
My mother loves me. John's father scolded him. 
In the last two sentences what are the objects ? 

Me and Mm. 

What part of speech are me and him ? 
Pronouns. 

May a pronoun, then, be the object of a verb ? 

It may. 

In the sentence, "John sleeps? is there any object? 

There is not. 

Does the verb sleep admit an object after it ? 

It does not. 

Into how many classes, then, may verbs be divided ? 

Into two classes : — 

I. Transitive verbs, which express an act that 
may be done to an object. 



4:0 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

II. Intransitive verbs, which do not express an 
act that may be done to an object. 

Are verbs that express simply a state of being transitive or in- 
transitive ? 

Verbs that express a state of being are intransi- 
tive. 

Why? 

Because they do not express any action at all. 

Is strike transitive or intransitive, and why ? 

Strike is a transitive verb, because it admits an 
object after it. Thus we may say, " I strike a 
man ; " in this sentence, man would be the object, 
and hence we find that strike is transitive. 

Is live a transitive or an intransitive verb ? 

Live is an intransitive verb, because it expresses 
simply a state of being, and does not admit an ob- 
ject after it. 

Is sleep transitive or intransitive ? jump ? hurt ? eat ? dream ? 
love ? see ? be ? walk ? run ? 

May any other part of speech besides a verb have an object ? 

Yes ; a preposition may have an object. 

In the sentence, " John is lying on the #ra.ss," what is the ob- 
ject of the preposition on ? 



Make three short sentences similar to the one last given, in 
which there will be a preposition and its object. 

How may you always find the object of a verb or preposition ? 

By putting what or ivhom after it ; the answer 
to the question will be the object. 

Give me an example. Tell me the object of the verb and 
preposition in this sentence, " Tht butcher killed a pig with a 
knife. " 

Put what after the verb : " The butcher killed 
what? " Answer, a j)?'(j ; pig is the object of the 



THE OBJECT. 41 

verb killed. Put what after the preposition : 
" With what f " Answer, a knife / knife is the 
object of the preposition with. 

EXERCISE. 

Complete the following sentences bj inserting 
an object where a dash occurs ; either a noun or 
pronoun, as the sense may require : — 

1. In Egypt the Nile overflows the , and ren- 
ders the fertile. 

2. Boys can buy with their money. 

3. I have found in the street a and a . 

4. A man, by honesty and , will always gain the 

of his companions. 

5. Henry's father bought him a for a Christ- 
mas . 

6. When danger is nigh, a hen gathers her 

under her . 

7. The fisherman is preparing to go to in a . 

8. In building houses, they use , , and . 

9. The mice have gnawed in this old . 

10. The American Indians are very skilful with the 

bow and arrow ; they can hit a very small at a 

great . With these weapons they often kill , 

, and other wild . 

11. With your spare purchase books; read 

, profit by , and take good care of . 

12. My brother loves me, and I love . 

13. After we die, the grave will contain our ; 

but our friends will remember , and shed on 

account of our departure. 

14. Birds gather for their young, and teach 

how to fly. 



42 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

15. The milk of the cow furnishes us and . 

16. In church we see many , but should listen to 

the . 



LESSON XVIII. 

PERSONAL, RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND 
ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.* 

What is a pronoun? (See Lesson IV., if you forget.) 
How many different classes of pronouns are there, and what 
are their names ? 

There are four classes of pronouns ; Personal, 
Relative, Interrogative, and Adjective. 

In the sentence, " / am tired" for what does the pronoun 1 
stand ? 

For the name of the person speaking. 

What kind of a pronoun is I? 

A personal pronoun. 

What is a Personal Pronoun ? 

A Personal Pronoun is a word, which, being used 
in a sentence without the noun for which it stands, 

merely represents it, without introducing any other 
idea respecting it. 

Mention the personal pronouns. 

The personal pronouns are as follows : 7, /////, 
mine, me, we, our, ours, us, thou, thy, thine, tin, . 
you, your, yours, he, his, him, she, her, hers, if. Us, 
they, their, theirs, them. 

In the sentence, " The Romans, who were victorious, lost only 

* Note. No allusion is made in this lesson to the Compound 
Personal Pronouns, myself, thyself, &c, or the Compound Rela- 
tives, whoever, wJiosomr, wh icht ver, &c, because a knowledge of 
them does not seem to be essential to the subject, and because the 
author feared that a consideration of these subdivisions might em- 
barrass the pupil. 



DIFFERENT CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 43 

fifty men," to what word does the pronoun w7io relate; or, in 
other words, who are said to have been victorious ? 

Romans. 

Then, since the pronoun who relates to Romans, what kind of a 
pronoun shall we call it ? 

A relative pronoun. 

What is a Relative Pronoun ? 

A Relative Pronoun is a word that relates to a 
noun or pronoun before it. 

What is this noun or pronoun going before, to which the rela- 
tive relates, called ? 

The Antecedent. 

In the sentence, " The boy who is idle will be unhappy" what is 
the relative, and what its antecedent ? 

Who is the relative, and hoy is its antecedent. 

Mention the relative pronouns. 

The relative pronouns are who, whose, whom, 
which, that. 

Is who always a relative pronoun ? 

Eo ; sometimes it does not relate to an antece- 
dent, but is used to ask a question ; as, " Who is 
there f " 

What kind of a pronoun is it then called ? 

An interrogative pronoun. 

What is an Interrogative Pronoun ? 

An Interrogative Pronoun is one that is used to 
ask a question. 

Mention the interrogative pronouns. 

The interrogative pronouns are who, whose, 
whom, which, and what. 

What mark always follows a sentence that contains an inter- 
rogative pronoun ? 

The Interrogation-point (?), which ought to be 
placed after every question. 



44 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

How, then, can you tell when wfio is a relative pronoun, and 
when an interrogative ? 

By looking at the end of the sentence ; if the 
interrogation-point is there, it is for the most part 
an interrogative pronoun ; if not, it is a relative. 

What are Adjective Pronouns ? 

Adjective Pronouns are words that are sometimes 

used instead of nouns, but are more frequently fol- 
lowed by their nouns, which they limit, or qualify, 
after the manner of adjectives. 

Give one or two sentences containing adjective pronouns. 

" Hand me that book." " I have some apples." 
" Have you any paper ? " That, some, and any, 
are adjective pronouns. 

Mention some of the principal adjective pronouns. 

This, that, these, those, some, no, none, any, all, 
each, every, either, neither. 

Give examples of adjective pronouns used instead of nouns. 

" That was unexpected." " All were pleased, 
and some delighted. 

EXERCISE. 

Make lists of the personal, relative, interroga- 
tive, and adjective pronouns, in order, as they 
occur in the following sentences. The pupil will 
do well to make his lists according to the following 

Example. Jane, I told you to hand me that book 
which is lying on the table, but you have not done it. 
What is the reason ? 

Lists. Personal. Relative. Interrogative. A(Ij>>iin. 

I, you, me, ) Which. What. That, 
you, it. f 



RELATIVE PRONOUN AND RELATIVE CLAUSE. 45 

1. You say that * I am charged with a great crime. 
Who are my accusers ? Let them stand forth, that I 
may see the authors of this base slander. 

2. If every man would do his duty, none would have 
any cause for complaint. 

3. Can we stand patiently by, and see our property 
torn from us? No; each generous emotion of our 
hearts forbids it. Let this tyrant tremble, and all his 
satellites beware ! 

4. The men whom I saw, had each a musket. 

5. Wherever she went, every one seemed disposed 
to do her honor. 

6. Look on this picture and on that. 



LESSON XIX. 

RELATIVE PRONOUN AND RELATIVE CLAUSE. 

What is a Relative Pronoun ? 

A Eelative Pronoun is one that relates to a noun 
or pronoun going before, called the antecedent. 

What is the Antecedent ? 

The Antecedent is the noun or pronoun before 
the relative to which it relates. 



* Note. The word that is sometimes a conjunction, sometimes 
a relative, and at other times an adjective pronoun; the pupil 
must decide which it is by the relation that it bears to other words 
in the sentence. In this sentence, that is not a relative, for it 
does not relate to any antecedent ; it is not an adjective pronoun, 
for it is not joined to, or used for, any noun ; but it is a conjunc- 
tion, for it connects clauses. 



46 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

In the sentence, " He that does right will be rewarded" what is 
the relative, and what the antecedent ? 

That is the relative, and he is the antecedent. 

What service does the relative perform in a sentence ? 

The relative is used to introduce a clause, for the 
purpose of limiting, explaining, or adding some- 
thing further to what is said. 

What is a clause thus introduced by a relative called ? 

A Eelative Clause. 

What is the relative clause in the sentence, " He that does right 
teill be rewarded" ? 

That does right is the relative clause, because it 
is introduced by the relative that. 

Select the relative, the antecedent, and the relative clause, in 
the following sentences : — 

1. The friends that we gain in childhood, often for- 
get us in old age. 

2. The -wind, which had been shifting all day from 
point to point, now began to blow steadily from the 
south. 

3. Those who are the most industrious, are the most 
happy. 

4. James, whose work was the best, received the 
premium. 

5. I have seen the man that lives in the cave. 



The sentences given in this exercise contain a 
relative and its antecedent ; the pupil must com- 
plete the relative clau-c by inserting the necessary 
words. Before attempting to complete the clause, 
read the whole sentence, and then think of some- 
thing that will be appropriate. 



PARTICIPLES. 47 

Example. The study that is History. 

Completed. The study that I like best is History. 
Or, The study that I dislike most is History. 
Or, The study that I find most difficidt is History. 
Each sentence may be completed in a variety of ways. 

1. I have broken my watch, which . 

2. The tree that , was blown down last night. 

3. My father, who , is now well. 

4. Those who — will be happy in this world, and 

still happier in the next. 

5. Horses are very useful to those who . 

6. In every school there are boys who . 

7. Thomas found the knife which . 

8. There is a boy whose . 

9. Mary is the most diligent girl that . 

10. The good boy will apply himself vigorously to 
the lessons which . 

11. The carriage which has been mended. 

12. Columbus was the first man that . 

13. The butterflies which , will all perish in 

winter. 

14. The dog that has run away. 



LESSON XX. 

PARTICIPLES-PARTICIPIAL, CLAUSES. 

In the sentence, " I saw John feeding his chickens," what word 
implies action, and at the same time qualifies John ? 

Feeding. 

Which part of speech implies action, and which qualifies 
nouns ? 

The verb implies action, and the adjective quali- 
fies nouns. 



48 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

The word feeding, then, partakes of the nature of what two 
parts of speech ? 

The verb and the adjective. 

What name is given to feeding, and similar words ? 

Participles. 

What is a Participle ? 

A Participle is a word that describes a noun or 
pronoun, by assigning to it a certain action or state. 

Does the participle form a distinct part of speech ? 

No ; participles are classed as parts of verbs. 

How many participles has every transitive verb ? 

Five. 

Mention the five participles of the verb love. 

Loving, loved, having loved, being loved, homing 
been loved. 

How many participles has every intransitive verb ? 

Two. 

Mention the two participles of the intransitive verb walk. 

Walking, having walked. 

Give me two or three sentences containing participles, and 
select the participle in each. 

James, while walking by the shore, saw a large 
bass attacked by a shark. 

Having been deceived once, I never trusted him 
again. 

He died, lo ved and respected by all that knew him. 

In the last sentence, what clause is introduced by the parti- 
ciples loved and respected? 

" Loved and respectc/ by nil thai In- w him." 

What is a clause introduced by, or containing, a participle, 
called ? 

A Participial Clause. 

Select the participial clause in each of the three sentences 
given above. 



EXERCISE ON PARTICIPLES. 49 



Complete the following sentences by inserting a 
participle in place of the dash : — 

Example. The day fair, we started on our 

journey. 

Completed. The day being fair, we started on our 
journey. 

1. Moses, his lessons, recited them well. 

2. We saw a boy in the river. 

3. Dinner , the party sat down. 

4. The carriage having been broken, Robert has 
taken it to the blacksmith's, to get it . 

5. My dog sick, I could not go a hunting. 

6. I have just seen a man killed by from the 

top of a house. 

7. My friend, while out on horseback, was 

thrown and seriously injured. 

8. I saw the American flag from the City Hall. 

9. You may often see bad boys in the street. 

10. Our house , we are about to move into it. 

11. The merchant spends his time in and 



12. Gas is useful for streets and houses. 

13. Oxen are used for wagons. 

14. Ships, while on the ocean, often encounter 

violent storms. 

15. The weather is cold, and we must have a fire . 

16. From this eminence my eyes upon the vast 

plain that lay before me, I saw a herd of buffaloes 

amid the long prairie-grass, and a group of wild 

horses away in the far distance. 

17. He was a bad man, and died, and by 

all that knew him. 



50 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

LESSON XXI. 

A REVIEW. 

[For the answers to the following questions, see Lessons XV., 
XVII., XVIII., XIX., and XX.] 

What is the subject of a verb ? 

How may you find the subject of a verb ? 

What may a verb have for its subject ? 

What is the object of a verb ? 

What are transitive verba ? What are intransitive verbs ? 

What other part of speech, besides transitive verbs, may have 
an object ? 

How may you find the object of a verb or preposition ? 

What is a pronoun ? 

Name the four classes of pronouns. 

What is a personal pronoun ? Mention the personal pronouns. 

What is a relative pronoun ? Mention the relative pronouns. 

What is an interrogative pronoun V Mention the interrogative 
pronouns. 

What is an adjective pronoun ? Mention some of the principal 
adjective pronouns. 

What is a relative clause ? 

What is the antecedent of a relative pronoun ? 

What is a participle ? 

How many participles has a transitive verb ? How many has 
an intransitive verb ? 

Mention the participles of the verb ask. Mention those of the 
verb dream. 

What is a participial clause ? 

EXERCISE. 

Where the dash occurs, put in one or more 
words, as may be required to complete the sense. 

The Tame Bear. 
Hans Christian Andersen, the Danish writer, tells 
us the following story of a tame bear, which broke 



SENTENCES. 51 

loose while the man exhibiting him was din- 
ner. He made his way to public house, , and 

went straight where there were three children, the 

eldest whom was no more than six or eight 

old. "The door sprang open, and in walked . 

The children were much frightened , and crept 

corners. The bear followed -, and rubbed 

them with nose, but he did not . When the 

children , they thought it was a big dog, and they 

patted, , and . The eldest boy now his 

drum, and began to loud noise. No sooner did 

the bear , than he raised himself on and be- 
gan to dance. This was charming. 

The boys had been playing at soldiers before , 

and now each his gun and . They gave the 

bear a gun, too, and he like a regular militia-man. 

Then they marched ; what a fine comrade ! 

Presently, however, the door again. It was 

the children's mother. You should have seen her ; her 

face was white as , and she trembled with fear 

when she . Then the smallest ran up to her, 

and shouted ' Mamma, mamma, we have had such , 

playing soldier ! ' " 

LESSON XXII. 

SENTENCE3, PHRASE3, CLAUSES, APPOSITION. 
What is a Sentence ? 

A Sentence is such an assemblage of words as 
makes complete sense. 

How many kinds of sentences are there, and what are they ? 

Four kinds ; Declarative, Imperative, Interrog- 
ative, and Exclamatory. 



52 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

What is a Declarative Sentence ? 

A Declarative Sentence is one in which some- 
thing is declared ; as, " It rains." 

What is an Imperative Sentence ? 

An Imperative Sentence is one in which permis- 
sion is given, or a command, an exhortation, or an 

entreaty uttered ; as, " Let it rain." 

What is an Interrogative Sentence ? 

An Interrogative Sentence is one in which a 
question is asked ; as, " Does it rain ? " 

What is an Exclamatory Sentence ? 

An Exclamatory Sentence is one that contains an 
exclamation ; as, " How it rains ! " 

Make two declarative sentences ; two imperative ; two inter- 
rogative ; two exclamatory. 
What is a Phrase ? * 

A Phrase is a combination of words which sepa- 
rately have no connection, either in construction or 
sense, with other words in the sentence, but which, 
when talzen together, convey a single idea, and may 
be construed as a single word. Thus : " James, in 
short, has become a hermit," — in this sentence, in 
short is a phrase. 

What is a Clause ? 

A Clause is a combination of words which sepa- 
rately may or may not be connected in construction 
with other words in the sentence: if so connected, 
they assert some additional circumstance respecting 



* Note to the Teacher. It seems impossible to define the terms 
phrase and clause without employing a great many words. The 
teacher must exercise his discretion as to whether these defini- 
tions shall be committed to memory, or not. The pupil must, 
however, understand them perfectly, so as to bo able to select 
phrases and clauses as they occur in sentences. 



CLAUSES. APPOSITION. 53 

tlie leading proposition ; as, " James, who had been 
on the watch, espied a sail : " if not so connected, 
they assert an entirely independent proposition ; 
as, " Stephen sailed for Florida, but he was wrecked 
on the voyage" In these sentences the words in 
italics are clauses. 

What is a Relative Clause ? 

A clause containing a relative pronoun ; as, 
" James, for whom I felt so mtcch anxiety, has ar- 
rived." 

What is a Participial Clause ? 

A clause containing a participle ; as, " The rest 
of the company having arrived, we went to din- 
ner." 

What is an Adverbial Clause ? 

A clause that performs the office of an adverb, 
and generally expresses time, place, or manner ; 
as, "A thousand years hence, all these things will 
have passed away." 

What is a Vocative Clause ? 

A clause containing the name of an object ad- 
dressed, with its adjuncts ; as, " My dear friend, I 
hope to meet you soon." 

When is one noun said to be in apposition with another ? 

When it refers to the same object, and is in the 
same construction ; as, " Paul, the Apostle " — 
Apostle is in apposition with Paul. 

May a sentence contain more than one of the clauses enumer- 
ated above ? 
It may. 
Does every sentence contain one of these clauses ? 

No ; there are some simple sentences that do not 



54: FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

contain any of these clauses ; as, " I love my 
mother. " 

ORAL EXERCISE. 

Tell to what class each of the following senten- 
ces belongs. When a clause occurs, tell what kind 
of a clause it is. 

1. Oh ! for a lodge in some vast wilderness ! 

2. There are men in the world, who are dead to every 
generous impulse. 

3. Have you heard the news that has just been re- 
ceived by the steamer ? 

4. Rising from his seat, the monarch gazed around ; 
and, darting a look of scorn on his humbled courtiers, 
bade them leave his presence till they should become 
honest men. 

5. My son, do you indulge in anger ? 

6. O Romeo, Romeo ! wherefore art thou Romeo ? 

7. Who ever hears of fat men heading a riot, or 
herding together in turbulent mobs ? 

8. It is chiefly through books that we enjoy inter- 
course with superior minds. 

9. The ship being now under sail, the shore began to 
recede rapidly from our sight. 

10. Lord Hastings, who had borne himself most 
bravely throughout the whole battle, escaped witli a 
slight wound. 

11. James, whom I sent to the river an hour ago, 
has not yet returned. 

12. What an accident! Did you ever witness a 
scene like this? 

13. Where Freedom rears her banner, a new empire 
has arisen. 



punctuation^ 55 



PUNCTUATION. 



LESSON XXIII. 

PERIOD, INTERROGATION-POINT, EXCLAMATION- 
POINT. 

What is Punctuation ? 

Punctuation is the art of dividing written lan- 
guage by points, in order that the meaning may be 
readily understood. 

What are the characters used in Punctuation ? 

Period, . Semicolon, ; 

Interrogation, ? Comma, , 

Exclamation, ! Dash, — 

Colon, : Parentheses, ( ) 
Brackets, [ 

Learn these characters perfectly, so that you can make them 
on the black-board. Turn to the oral exercise at the end of the 
last lesson, and mention the names of the points as they occur. 

Where should the period be used ? 

A period should be placed after every declara- 
tive and imperative sentence ; as, " The child is 
asleep." The period is also used to denote an ab- 
breviation ; thus, when we write Dr for Doctor, or 
Geo for George, we must use a period — Dr. Geo. 

Where should the interrogation-point be used ? 

An interrogation-point should be placed after 
every interrogative sentence ; as, " Have you teen 
to Ohio?" 



56 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

Where should the exclamation-point be used ? 

An exclamation-point should be placed after 
every exclamatory sentence, and after every inter- 
jection except ; as, "Alas/ woe is me/ " 

EXEECISE. 

Write the following sentences, and insert 
periods, interrogation - points, and exclamation- 
points, in their proper places. 

Example. Alas true friendship has departed from 
earth 

Punctuated, Alas ! true friendship has departed 
from earth. 

1. Hark the bee winds her small but mellow horn 

2. What art thou doing Is revenge so sweet 

3. Ha at the gates what grisly forms appear 

4. Farewell ye gilded follies welcome ye silent groves 

5. What would I have you do I'll tell you, kins- 
man ; learn to be wise 

6. Canst thou not sing Send forth a hymn of praise 

7. No more I'll hear no more Begone 

8. How dead the vegetable kingdom lies 

9. The village dogs bark at the early pilgrim 

10. Can you recall time that is gone Why then do 
you not improve the passing moments 

11. A brave man knows no fear 

12. Both stars and sun will fade away ; but can the 
soul of man die 

13. Oh horrible thought Ah woe is me 

14. Dr Johnson was a learned man 

15. New Holland contains many singular species of 
birds 



COLON AND SEMICOLON. 57 

LESSON XXIV. 

COLON AND SEMICOLON. 

Make a colon on the black-board. 
Where should the colon be placed ? 

The colon should be placed between clauses that 
have very little connection ; and after the words, 
thus, following, or as follows, when reference is 
made by them to something coming after ; as, 
" The Squire next ascended the platform, and 
spoke as follows : ' Gentlemen and ladies,' " <fec. 

Make a semicolon on the black-board. 
For what is the semicolon used ? 

The semicolon is used to separate long clauses, 
and such as are not very closely connected ; as, " I 
perceive the difference ; it is very obvious." 

Special Rules. 

Rule I. When several long clauses follow 
each other, all having common dependence on 
some other clause, they are separated by semico- 
lons ; as, " I love to wander through the fields ; to 
see the vegetable world spring into life ; to gaze 
upon the beauties which God has so lavishly dif- 
fused ; and through the creature to commune with 
the Creator." 

Rule II. When examples are introduced by 
the word as, a semicolon is placed before as ; for 
an example, see the preceding rule. 

EXERCISE. 

Write the following sentences, and insert 



58 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

periods, interrogation-points, exclamation-points, 
colons, and semicolons, where they are required : — 

Example. He has arrived he sounds his bugle at 
the gates Shall we admit him 

Punctuated. He has arrived ; he sounds his bugle 
at the gates. Shall we admit him ? 

1. The warrior spoke as follows " O man heavy 
with wine why dost thou thus keep prattling " 

2. Do not insult a poor man his misery entitles him 
to pity 

3. Some books are to be read others are to be studied 
while many may be entirely neglected with positive ad- 
vantage 

4. His last words were as follows " Farewell may 
Heaven prosper thee in thy perilous enterprise " 

5. If the sacred writers will take up their abode un- 
der my roof if Milton will cross my threshold, to sing to 
me of Paradise if Shakspeare will open to me the fields 
of imagination I shall not pine for want of company 

6. Beauty is an all-pervading presence It unfolds 
in the flowers of spring it waves in the branches of the 
trees it haunts the depths of the earth and sea 

7. Gentle reader, have you ever sailed on the spark- 
ling waters of the Mississippi 



LESSON XXV. 

COMMA. 
Make a comma on the black-boaril. 
For what is the comma used \ 

The comma is used to separate short clauses, or 
such as are closely connected, but, in consequence 



COMMA. 59 

of the construction or arrangement, must be sepa- 
rated by some point. 

Special Rules. What is the rule for placing the comma be- 
fore and after clauses and phrases ? 

Rule I. When a clause or phrase is introduced 
into a sentence without a conjunction, particularly 
if an inversion occurs, so that it does not occupy 
its natural position, a comma should be placed be- 
fore and after it ; or, if such clause stands at the 
commencement of a sentence, a comma should be 
placed after it. 

The principal clauses and phrases that fall under 
this rule are as follows : — 

I. A relative clause ; as, " Ellen, who was up early, 
finished her lessons." But if the relative clause re- 
stricts the antecedent, or the connection between the 
two is very close, there is no comma before the rela- 
tive ; as, " Those who are good, are happy." 

II. A participial clause when it does not qualify the 
object of a verb ; as, " The Captain, seeing his danger, 
avoided it." 

III. An adverbial clause; as, "By the time we 
reached shelter, we were completely wet." 

IV. A vocative clause; as, "Here I am, my be- 
loved son." 

V. The phrases, in short, in truth, on the contrary, 
&c. ; also, the words, besides, moreover, namely, nay, 
firstly, secondly, &c. The conjunctions also and how- 
ever, which should not commence a sentence, have a com- 
ma before and after them ; as, " Your cousin, in short, has 
become a lovely woman." " James, however, is here." 

What is the rule that relates to the subject of a verb ? 

Rule II When the subject of a verb consists 



60 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

of a number of words, a comma should be placed 
after it; as, " Close and undivided attention to any 
object, insures success." 

What is the rule that relates to the omission of words ? 

Bide III. When, to avoid repetition, a verb, or 
a conjunction that connects words of the same part 
of speech, is omitted, a comma should be put in its 
place to denote the omission; as, " Conversation 
makes a ready man ; writing, an exact man." In 
the last clause the verb makes is omitted, and a 
comma is put in its place. " Solomon was a wise, 
prudent, and powerful monarch." The conjunc- 
tion and is omitted between wise and prudent^ and 
a comma is put in its place. 

What is the rule that relates to certain conjunctions ? 

Bide IV A comma should be placed before 
and, or, if, hut, and that, when they connect short 
clauses ; and before and, or, and nor, when they 
connect the last two of a series of words that are 
of the same part of speech ; as, " You must come 
with me, or I will go with }~ou." " Xeither Ellen, 
Sarah, nor Jane, was there." 

What is the rule that relates to nouns in apposition ? 

Bute V. When a clause of more than two words 
occurs, containing a noun in apposition with some 
preceding noun, a comma should be placed before 
and after the clause ; as, " Columbus, the discoverer 
of America, was born in Genoa." 

What is the rule that relates to words used in pairs? 

Bide VI. Words used in pairs take a comma 
after each pair ; as, " Poverty and distress, desola- 
tion and ruin, are the consequences of civil war." 






COMMA. 61 



Copy the following sentences, and insert commas 
in the proper places. The rule under which the 
examples are given, will direct you ; refer to it, if 
you do not remember it. 

Examples under Rule I. The Romans who con- 
quered the world could not conquer themselves. Those 
who fled were killed. Philip whose wife you have seen 
has gone to Albany. We saw a man walking on the 
rails. A man while imprudently walking on the rails was 
run over by the cars. Where we stood we could not hear 
a w T ord. Wait a moment my friend. Vice is alluring, and 
has many votaries ; virtue on the contrary has but few. 

Under Rule II. That this man has basely deceived 
those who have trusted him can not be doubted. A long 
life of good works and sincere repentance can hardly 
atone for such misdeeds. The author of these profound 
and learned philosophical essays was a poor blacksmith. 

Under Ride III. Diligence is the mother of success ; 
laziness of failure. The wife was a tall lean cadaverous 
personage ; the husband was a fine good-looking sturdy 
fellow. Men women and children stare cry out and run. 

Under Rule IT". No one will respect you if you 
are dishonest. Stephen saw his cousin coming and ran 
to meet her. My horse is not handsome but he trots 
well. He will be here on Wednesday Thursday or 
Friday. Be virtuous that you may be esteemed by 
your companions. 

Under Rule V. Bunyan the author of " The Pil- 
grim's Progress " was a tinker. Paul the Apostle of 
the Gentiles wrote many epistles. I have been in Ire- 



62 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

land ill-fated country. Cicero the orator is one of the 
most distinguished of the ancient Romans. 

Tinder Rule VI. Industry and virtue idleness and 
vice go hand in hand. Summer and -winter seed-time 
and harvest are the gifts of an all-wise Providence. 
Painting and sculpture poetry and music will always 
have enthusiastic admirers. 



LESSON XXVI. 

EXERCISE. 

CorY and punctuate the following extract : — 
The Swan. 

Swans in a wild state are found in the eastern part 
of Europe but they are most abundant in Siberia and 
the countries that surround the Caspian Sea Under 
ordinary circumstances they are perfectly harmless but 
when driven to act on the defensive have proved them- 
selves formidable enemies. They have great strength 
in their wings an old swan using these as his weapons 
has been known to break a man's leg with a single stroke 
When their young are in danger they do not hesitate to 
engage with large animals and not unfrequently come off 
victorious from the struggle A female swan was once 
seen to attack and drown a fox which was swimming 
toward her nest for the purpose of feeding upon her young 

When sailing on the water which is its favorite ele- 
ment the swan is a beautiful bird and its motions are 
graceful when seen on land however it presents a very 
different appearance its gait being awkward and all its 
movements exceedingly clumsy 

It has been said by some authors that the swan which 



DASH, PARENTHESES, BRACKETS. G3 

during its life never sings a note sends forth when it is 
dying a most beautiful strain This is no doubt a mere 
fable at all events we have not sufficient evidence to 
establish it as a fact 

Swans were formerly held in such esteem in Eng- 
land that by an act of Edward IV no one but the king's 
son was permitted to keep a swan unless he had an in- 
come of five marks a year By a subsequent act those 
who took their eggs were punished by imprisonment 
for a year and a day and fined according to the king's 
pleasure At the present day swans are little valued 
for the delicacy of their flesh though many are still 
preserved for their beauty 



LESSON XXVII. 

DASH, PAHENTHESE3, BRACKETS. 

Make a dash. 

For what is the dash used ? 

The dash is used, 

I. To denote that a sentence is unfinished ; as, 
" I can not believe that he ." 

II. To denote a sudden transition either in the 
form of a sentence or in the sentiment expressed ; 
as, " It was a sight — that child in the agony of 
death — that would have moved a heart of stone." 

" He had no malice in his mind — 
No ruffles on his shirt." 

Make parentheses. Make brackets. 

For what are parentheses and brackets used ? 

Parentheses and brackets are used to enclose 
words and clauses, that are not connected in con- 



64 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

struction with other words in the sentence, but aro 
suggested by them, or explanatory of their mean- 
ing; as, 
"Know, then, this truth (enough for man to know), 

Virtue alone is happiness below." 
" The wisest men (and it may be said the best too) 
are not exempt from sin." 

Are parentheses and brackets much used by authors at the 
present day ? 

No ; commas are generally used instead of them. 



Copy and punctuate the following sentences : — 
Dash. 

1. A crimson handkerchief adorned his head 
His face was cheerful and his nose was red 

2. Some and they were not a few knelt down 

3. His eyes how they twinkled Ins dimples how merry 

4. They poisoned my very soul hot burning poisons 

5. Away ungrateful wretch A father's curse rest 
Alas what am I doing I can not curse my son 

G. The friend of our infancy has she gone forever 

7. Thou merry laughing sprite 

With spirits feather light 
Untouched by sorrow and unsoiled by sin 
Good Heavens the child is swallowing a pin 

Thou imp of mirth and joy 
In love's dear chain so strong and bright a link 
Thou idol of thy parents drat the boy 

There goes my ink 



OTHER MARKS USED IN WRITING. 65 

Parentheses. 

8. Let us then for we cannot flee without disgrace 
boldly meet the foe 

9. Mr. Morton every old citizen knows him well 
died last week of apoplexy 



LESSON XXVIII. 

OTHER MARKS USED IN WRITING. 

Are any other marks used in writing, besides those which have 
been described ? 

Yes; 

Apostrophe, ' Hyphen, - 

Quotation-points, " " Caret, A 

Make an apostrophe. For what is the apostrophe used ? 

The apostrophe is used, 

I. To denote the omission of one or more let- 
ters ; as, the? for though ; 'neath for beneath. 

II. When s is placed after a noun, making it 
denote possession, an apostrophe is inserted before 
the s / as John's book. But when the noun ends 
in s, and signifies more than one, an apostrophe 
alone placed after it makes it denote possession ; 
as, " The ladies' seats ". 

Make quotation-points. For what are quotation-points used ? 

Quotation-points are used to enclose a passage 
quoted from an author or speaker, in his own 
words ; as, 

" To err is human ; to forgive, divine." 

Are single quotation-points (' ') ever used ? 

Yes ; single quotation-points are used to enclose 



66 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

quotations that occur within quotations, or that 
are slightly altered from the words of the author 
or speaker; as, " The Scripture saith, ' Watch and 
pray.' " 

Make a hyphen. For what is the hyphen used ? 

The hyphen is used, 

I. To connect two simple words that unite to form 
a compound word ; as, " A spirit-moving strain". 

II. At the end of a line, when there is not room 
for the whole of a word, the hyphen is placed 
after one of its syllables, to show that the re- 
mainder may be found at the beginning of the 
next line ; * as, ki lie strove man- 
fully." 

Make a caret. For what is the caret used ? 

When some word that has been omitted is inter- 
lined, the caret is used to show where it should be 

lesson 

introduced ; as, " Study this carefully." 



Copy and punctuate the following sentences : — 

Apostrophe. 1 11 neer forget your kindness. They sat 
neath a spreading willow. Tho Milton was blind yet 
was his mind well stored with knowledge. Hark tis the 
signal gun. Where is my fathers hat ? Zenos school 
was one of the most celebrated in Greece. Romes great- 

* When the pupil, in writing, can not get the whole of a word 
in the line, and has to carry part of it to the next, he must be 
careful to divide it according to its syllables, and place the hyphen 
after a complete syllable. 



QUOTATION-POINTS. HYPHEN. 67 

ness has passed away. I saw the citys gates. I saw 
the cities gates. Where is Janes fan ? 

Quotation-points. Pope says The proper study of 
mankind is man. When Socrates was asked what 
man approached the nearest to perfect happiness he 
answered That man who has the fewest wants. The 
philosopher hath truly said Anxiety is the poison of 
human life. The quality of mercy says Shakspeare is 
not strained. How much truth there is in Franklin's 
maxim One to-day is worth two to-morrows. 

Hyphen. Away thou earth polluting miscreant! 
He is a mischief maker. The laborer enjoys his well 
earned feast. The air is full of snow flakes. Where is 
your eye glass ? Near the shore was a grove of spice 
wood. The river glides on in its serpent like course. 

Caret. {In each of the following sentences, one or 
more words are omitted. Introduce the omitted word 

is 
or words by means of a caret • as, Dark the path.) 

A 

Labor gives a relish pleasure. Hope, the balm 
life, soothes under every misfortune. Charity is one 
of the of virtues. Always show to the aged. Honor 
your father mother. Do not your time. 



LESSON XXIX. 

EXERCISE. 

Copy and punctuate the following extracts : — 

1. Phocion. — Phocion one of the most illustrious of 
the ancient Greeks was condemned to death by Ins un- 



68 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

grateful countrymen When about to drink the fatal 
hemlock he was asked if he had anything to say to his 
son Bring him before me cried lie My dear son said 
this magnanimous patriot I entreat you to serve your 
country as faithfully as I have done and to forget that 
she rewarded my services with an unjust death. 

2. The Sybarites. — We have heard many stories 
of lazy people but what Athenaeus tells us of the Syba- 
rites a nation of antiquity exceeds them all. They would 
not allow any mechanical trade to be carried on in their 
city because the noise was unpleasant and disturbed 
their slumbers for the same reason to keep a rooster 
was a grave offence punishable by law. A Sybarite 
on one occasion it is said wandering out into the coun- 
try saw some men digging whereupon the sight gave 
him a violent strain in the back while a friend to whom 
he described what he had seen caught a severe pain in 
the side. One of them having visited Lacedaemon was 
introduced to the public table where the principal dish 
was black broth. Ah cried he no longer do I wonder 
at the bravery of the Spartans for rather would I die 
than live on such wretched diet. 

3. The Form of the Earth. — Heraclitus supposed 
that the earth had the form of a canoe Aristotle that it 
was shaped like a timbrel while Anaximander proved 
to his own satisfaction that it was a vast cylinder. It 
was reserved for a later age to discover its real shape 



EXERCISE IN PUNCTUATION. 69 

LESSON XXX. 

EXERCISE. 

Copy and punctuate the following extract : — 
The Lepeost in Africa. Leprosy that awful dis- 
ease which covers the body with scales still exists in 
Africa. Whether it is the same leprosy as that men- 
tioned in the Bible is not known but it is regarded as 
perfectly incurable and so infectious that no one dares 
to come near the leper. In the south of Africa there 
is a large lazar house for the victims of this terrible 
malady It consists of an immense space enclosed by a 
very high wall and containing fields which the lepers 
cultivate There is only one entrance and it is strictly 
guarded When any one is found with the marks of 
leprosy upon him he is brought to this gate and enters 
never to return Within this abode of misery there are 
multitudes of lepers in all stages of the disease. Dr 
Helbeck a missionary of the Church of England from 
the top of a neighboring hill saw them at work He 
noticed two particularly sowing peas in the field The 
one had no hands the other no feet those members hav- 
ing been wasted away by the disease The one who 
wanted the hands was carrying the other who wanted 
the feet on his back and he again bore in his hands the 
bag of seed and dropped a pea every now and then which 
the other pressed into the ground with his foot and so 
they managed the work of one man between the two 

Such is the prison house of disease Ah how little 
do we realize the misery that is in the world How 
unthankful are we for the blessings which God bestows 
upon us while He denies them to others 



TO FIRST LESSONS IX COMPOSITION. 

LESSON XXXI. 

RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 
What usage formerly prevailed with regard to capital letters ? 

To begin every noun, both in writing and print- 
ing, with a capital. This is still the practice in 
the German language. 

What are the rules that are to guide us at the present day ? 

Begin with a capital letter, 

1. The first word of every sentence. 

2. All proper nouns, and titles of office or 
honor; as, Rome, Spain, President Fillmore, 
General Washington, Henry Street. 

3. Adjectives formed from proper nouns ; as, 
Roman, Spanish. 

4. Common nouns when spoken to, or spoken 
of, as persons ; as, " Come, gentle Spring." 

5. The first word of every line of poetry. 

6. The appellations of the Deity, and personal 
pronouns standing for His name ; as, " God is the 
Lord i He ruleth in His might." 

7. The first word of a quotation that forms a 
complete sentence by itself, and is not introduced 
by that, or other words which would connect it in 
construction with what precedes ; as, " Rennmh, r 
the old maxim : i Honesty is the best policy? " 

8. Every important word in the titles of books, 
or headings of chapters ; as " Lockers Essay on the 
IIu m an TJn derstan din gP 

9. "Words that are the leading subjects of dis- 
course. 



CAPITAL LETTERS. 71 

10. The pronoun I, and the interjection 0, must 
be written in capitals. 



Copy the following sentences, applying the 
rules given above, and observing that where there 
is no rule for using a capital you must substitute a 
small letter : — 

1. Under Rule I. know Thyself, honesty is the 
best policy, follow virtue. It Rains, envy is a Dis- 
honorable emotion, avoid the appearance of evil, im- 
prove every Moment. 

2. Tinder Rules II. and III. Alexander the great 
overran Syria, persia, lydia, and hyrcania, pushing his 
Conquests as far as the river indus. napoleon kept all 
europe at bay, until the Fatal Field of Waterloo con- 
signed him to st. helena. President adams received the 
congratulations of the french and Spanish ministers. 

3. Tinder Rule IV. Hail, winter, seated on thine 
icy Throne ! Fierce war has sounded his trumpet, And 
Called the peasant from the field, bland Goddess peace 
now smiles upon the plain, here I and sorrow sit. Grim 
darkness furls his leaden Shroud. 

4. Tinder Rules V. and VI. 

in every leaf that trembles to the breeze, 
i hear the Voice of god among the trees. 
Trust in the lord ; hath he Spoken, and shall he not do it ? 
these, as they change, almighty father, these 
are but the varied god. 

5. Tinder Ride VII. This was our saviour's com- 
mand: "watch and pray." Virgil says, "labor con- 
quers all things." " merry christmas," cried the de- 
lighted villagers. 



72 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

6. Under Rule VIII. milton's "paradise lost" 
brought him in only twenty-eight Pounds. Have you 
read dickens' Account of his visit to america, which he 
entitles "american notes for general circulation"? I 
have read with delight hervey's " meditations among 
the tombs ". 

7. Under Rule X. i love thee not as once i loved, 
o false friend, o cruel traitor. O Heaven ! i am un- 
done ! O wretched youth ! i thought i hated thee ; but 
thy misfortune hath turned My Hate To Pity. 



LESSON XXXII. 

A REVIEW. 

What is a sentence ? How many kinds of sentences are there ? 
What is a declarative sentence ? an imperative sentence ? an in- 
terrogative sentence ? an exclamatory sentence ? 

What is a phrase ? What is a clause ? What is a relative clause ? 
a participial clause ? an adverbial clause ? a vocative clause ? 

When is one noun said to be in apposition with another ? 

What is punctuation ? Name the characters used in punctua- 
tion. Where is the period placed ? What is the period also 
used to denote ? Where is the interrogation-point used ? the ex- 
clamation-point ? Where should the colon be placed ? What is 
the semicolon used to separate ? Repeat the rule for the use of 
the semicolon between dependent clauses ; the rule that relates to 
examples. 

For what is the comma used ? What is the rule that relates to 
the use of the comma in the case of clauses and phrases? What 
are the four principal clauses that fall under this rule* Mention 
some of the phrases that fall under it. What is the rule that re- 
lates to the subject of a verb ? to the omission of words ? to certain 
conjunctions ? to nouns in apposition ? to words used in pairs t 



MISCELLANEOUS EXEECISE. 73 



Copy the following extracts, inserting, as may be 
required, capital letters, pnnctuation-points, and 
the other marks used in writing, described in Les- 
son XXVIII. :— 

1. The Bushman and the missionary. — the bushmen 
are a very degraded and ignorant race who live in south- 
ern africa not far from the cape of good hope A mis- 
sionary who for some time had been laboring to intro- 
duce Christianity among them took occasion one day to 
speak of the great objects of creation and the duties of 
man at last he asked, what is the chief end of man 
The bushmen were silent for several moments appar- 
ently reflecting what answer they should give to this 
difficult question At length one of them who seemed 
inspired by a sudden idea replied, to steal oxen 

2. The bravery of Horatius codes. — when porsenna 
king of the etrurians was endeavoring to reestablish 
tarquinius superbus on the throne he attacked rome 
and had the good fortune to take the janiculum at the 
first assault At this crisis horatius codes a common 
sentinel but a man of the greatest courage posted him- 
self at the extremity of the Sublician bridge and alone 
withstood the whole force of the enemy till the bridge 
was broken down behind him he then threw himself 
into the tiber and swam over to his friends unhurt by 
either his fall or the darts of the enemy 

3. by wisdom tutored poetry exalts 

her voice to ages and informs the page 
with music image sentiment and thought 
never to die 



74 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITIOY- 

LESSON XXXIII. 

A REVIEW. 

For what is the dash used ? For what are parentheses and 
brackets used? For what is the apostrophe used? quotation- 
points ? the hyphen ? the caret ? 

Repeat the ten rules for the use of capital letters. 

EXERCISE. 

Copy the following extracts, inserting, as may 
be required, capitals, punctuation-points, and the 
other marks used in writing : — 

Liars. — aristides among the athenians and epami- 
nondas among the thebans are said to have been such 
lovers of truth that they never told a lie even in joke, 
atticus likewise with whom cicero was very intimate 
neither told a lie himself nor could bear it in others, i 
hate that man achilles used to say as much as I do the 
gates of pluto who says one thing and thinks another. 
Aristotle bears his testimony as follows liars are not 
believed even when they speak the truth. Sincerity is 
one of the most important virtues that man can possess. 

The Affectionate Dolphin. — during the reign 
of the emperor augustus a dolphin formed an attachment 
to the son of a poor man who used to feed him with 
bits of bread, every day the dolphin when called by 
the boy swam to the surface of the water and after 
having received his usual meal carried the boy on his 
back from baia? to a school in puteoli and brought him 
back in the same manner. The boy after a time died 
and the dolphin coming to the usual place and missing 
his kind master is said also to have died of grief 



ANALYSIS OF WORDS. 75 



LESSON XXXIV. 

PRIMITIVE, COMPOUND, AND DERIVATIVE WORDS. 
ANALYSIS-ACCENT. 

What is a Word ? 

A "Word is what is written or spoken as the sign 
of an idea. 

Into how many classes may we divide words, when considered 
with regard to their origin ? 

Into three classes; Primitive, Compound, and 
Derivative. 

What is a Primitive Word ? 

A Primitive Word is one that is not formed from 
any simpler word ; as, watch, man. 

What is a Compound Word? 

A Compound Word is one that is formed by 
uniting two or more words ; as, watchman. 

What is a Derivative Word ? 

A Derivative Word is one that is formed from a 
single primitive ; as, watches, manly. 

How are derivatives formed from primitives ? 

By the addition of one or more letters ; which, 
if placed before the primitive, are called prefixes ; 
if after it, suffixes. Thus, act is a primitive ; trans- 
act is a derivative, formed by the addition of the 
prefix trans ; acted is a derivative, formed by the 
addition of the suffix eel. 

What is meant by analyzing a word ? 

Separating it into parts. 

Analyze the word walking. 

Walking is a derivative, formed of the primi- 
tive walk and the suffix ing. 



76 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

Analyze the word man-hater. 

Man-hater is a compound word, formed of 
the two words man and hater. 

Analyze blindly, review, glass-house, moreover, bird-cage, repress. 
What mark is generally used to connect the primitives that 
unite to form a compound word ? 

The hyphen. 

What is meant by Accent ? 

By Accent is meant stress of voice : thus, in 
colder, the first syllable, cold, receives the stress of 
the voice, and therefore we say that the accent is 
on cold. 

On how many syllables in a word may accent be laid ? 

In short words, on one syllable only ; as, mven, 
begin, deny. In long words, besides the principal 
accent, a secondary accent may be laid on some 
other syllable or syllables; as, agriculture, Com- 
stant\no\)\e, \TLCom"pYehem\b ilitj. 

In scholar, which syllable is accented ? in dethrone? in misery? 
in inhabitant ? in philosophy ? 



Primitive Words. Kight, day, school, book, 
store, fruit, lire, man, boat, sun, flower, garden, 
ice, glass, green, house. 

1. Form and write out ten compound words, by 
uniting two of the above primitives. You are not at 
liberty to unite any two, but only such as form a com- 
pound word that makes good sense, or that you may 
have seen or heard used. Thus, night-book would not 
do; but night-school would convey a definite idea, and 
would be proper. 

2. Form and write out ten derivative words from the 



SPELLING. RULES. 77 

primitives given above, by adding to them the suffix s 7 
ly, or ing; as, nights, daily, schooling. 

3. Write out six words accented on the first sylla- 
ble ; as, writing ', sunny. 

4. Write out six words accented on the second syl- 
lable ; as, affirm, destroy. 

5. Write out six words accented on the third sylla- 
ble ; as, elevation, Alabama. 



LESSON XXXV. 

SPELLING.-RUIiES. 

What is Spelling ? 

Spelling is the art of expressing words by their 
proper letters. 

Are words spelled as we would expect to find them, from their 
pronunciation ? 

Sometimes they are, but not always. 

What is the best method of becoming a good speller ? 

A person may become a good speller, 

I. By carefully observing the words with which 

he meets, while reading. 

II. When he is writing, by looking out in a 

dictionary all the words respecting which 
be has any doubt. 

Does the dictionary contain every word that you may have 
occasion to use ? 

!Not every word; there are some derivatives 
which it does not contain. 

How, then, are you to know how to spell these derivatives ? 

There are certain rules which direct us as to 
their formation. 



78 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

What is the need of these rules ? If we can spell the primi- 
tive and the prefix or suffix, may we not simply join them together 
and spell the derivative ? 

In some cases we may ; but, often, a change is 
made in a primitive before a suffix is added. Tims, 
in forming having from have, the e of the primitive 
have is rejected, before the suffix ing is added. 
The rules cover such cases as this. 

When no rule applies, how do you form a derivative ? 

Kegularly ; that is, without making any change 
before adding the prefix or suffix. 

How many important rules are there ? 

Four. 

When is a letter said to he final? 

When it has the last letter in a word ; thus, in 
have there is a final e. 

Mention four words that have final vowels ; four that have 
final .consonants. 

Repeat the rule that relates to final e. 

Itule I. The final e of a primitive word is re- 
jected before a suffix beginning with a vowel ; as ? 
hate, hating — the final e of hate is rejected before 
the suffix mg, which begins with a vowel 

Form and spell the derivatives that are obtained by adding the 
suffix ing to the primitives, rave, shave, hope, smoke. 

Repeat the rule that relates to the final consonant of a mono* 
syllable. 

It ale II. The final consonant of a monosyl- 
lable, if preceded by a single vowel, i- doubled 

before a suffix beginning with a vowel ; as, /"//, 
hatter. In this example, the final t of the mono- 
syllable hat is preceded by a single vowel, a, and 
is doubled before the suffix er. 



SPELLING. RULES. 79 

Form and spell the derivatives that are obtained by adding 
the suffix er to the primitives, chat, hot, spin, win. 

Eepeat the rule that relates to the final consonant of any word 
accented on the lttst syllable. 

Rule III. The final consonant of any word ac- 
cented on the last syllable, if preceded by a single 
vowel, is doubled before a suffix beginning with a 
vowel ; as, debar , debarring. Debar is accented on 
the last syllable ; the final consonant, r, is preceded 
by a single vowel, and is doubled before the suffix 
ing. 

Form and spell the derivatives that are obtained by adding 
the suffix ed to the primitives, abhor, rebut, remit, permit. 
Repeat the rule that relates to final y. 

Rule IV. The final y of a primitive word, when 
preceded by a consonant, is changed into i, before 
a suffix which does not commence with i; as, glory, 
glorious. The final y of glory is preceded by the 
consonant r, and is changed into i before the suffix 
ous, which does not commence with i. When the 
suffix commences with i, the final y remains un- 
changed ; as, glory, glorying. 

When y final is preceded by a vowel, is it changed into i upon 
the addition of a suffix ? 

!No, it remains unchanged ; as, joy, joyous / 
play, playing. 



Under Rule I. Write out the derivatives that are 
obtained by adding the suffix ing to the following 
words : rule, trace, strike, bite, invite, plunge, censure, 
tolerate, unite, blame, rebuke, allure. 

Under Rule II. Write out the derivatives that are 



80 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

obtained by adding the suffix ed to the following words : 
pin, shun, plot, plan, spot, tan, dip, fit, sin, thin, hop, jar. 

Under Rule III. Write out the derivatives that are 
obtained by adding the suffix ing to the following 
words : begin, unpin, abet, debar, occur, admit, confer, 
recur, compel, unfit, dispel, deter. 

Under Rule IV. Write out the derivatives that 
are obtained by adding the suffix ed to the following 
words : cry, try, fry, deny, multiply, terrify, dry, busy, 
copy, defy, empty, remedy. 

Miscellaneous Exercise. Write out the derivatives 
that are obtained by adding the suffix ing to the fol- 
lowing words : brave, destroy,* play, charge, judge, 
employ, annoy, stay, permit, unbar, refer, number,f 
profit, alter, propel, flatter, mar, stir, transmit, drive, 
justify, X decry, say. 



LESSON XXXVI. 

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

You have now learned how to punctuate, and 
when it is proper to use capital letters ; you have 
also had rules for the formation of such derivatives 
as are not in the dictionary. You are, therefore, 
prepared to make sentences of your own. 

* Observe that here a vowel comes before final >/ ; other words 
like this will be given. 

f Observe that this word is accented on the first syllable ; the 
final consonant, therefore, is not doubled. Other words like this 
will be given. 

\ Kemember that the final y remains unchanged before a Buffii 
commencing with i. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 81 

What is a Sentence ? 

A Sentence is such an assemblage of words as 
makes complete sense. 

Of how many parts does every sentence consist ? 

Of two parts, Subject and Predicate. 

What is the Subject of a sentence ? 

The Subject of a sentence is that respecting 
which something is affirmed. 

What is the Predicate ? 

The Predicate is that which is affirmed respect- 
ing the subject. 

Select the subject and predicate in the sentence, " Intemperance 
leads to destruction." 

Intemperance is the subject, because something 
is affirmed respecting it ; leads to destruction is the 
predicate, because it affirms something about the 
subject, intemperance. 

What part of speech affirms ? 

A verb. 

What must there be, then, in every sentence ? 

A verb. 

Before beginning to write sentences of your own, it will be 
well for you to learn the following directions, which, if carefully 
attended to, will be found of great service : — 

I. Be sure to use punctuation-points and capitals, according 
to the rules which have been given. 

II. "Take care that every word is spelled correctly ; use your 
dictionary whenever you are in doubt, and apply the four rules 
that relate to the formation of derivative words. 

III. If you date your composition, put a comma after the name 
of the place, a comma after the day of the month, and a period 
after the year; thus, Neio York, November 1st, 1868. 

IV. Never write in a hurry or carelessly ; but do your best 
to make each composition better than the preceding one. 

V. After you have written your composition, look over it witli 



82 



FIKST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 



care, in order to correct whatever errors you may have committed, 
in punctuation, in spelling, or in style. 



Write sentences containing the following words. 
When you can, introduce two or more of the words 
into the same sentence. 

Example. Write sentences containing the words, 
day, hour, moment, friendship, neglect, 

Sentences. Each day, each hour, each moment^ 
should be diligently improved. 

Cultivate the friendship of the good. 

Neglect not your studies. 



Handsome, 


crowd, 


poor, 


country, 


graceful, 


market, 


wretched, 


fields, 


industry, 


flowers, 


gentle, 


covered, 


success, 


fruit, 


kind, 


virtuous, 


diligent, 


pleasure, 


companions, 


esteem, 


obtain, 


reading, 


quickly, 


respect, 


reward, 


tr y> 


expect, 


ridiculed, 


winter, 


excel, 


discovered, 


school, 


dreary, 


kind, 


frightened, 


houses, 


appears, 


heart, 


fainted, 


city, 


influence, 


terrible, 


education, 


noise. 



LESSON XXXVII. 

EXERCISE. 

Write sentences containing the following com- 
binations of words : — 



SENTENCES CONTAINING- CLAUSES. 83 

Example. "Write sentences containing the words, 
severe affliction, walking alone. 

/Sentences. The loss of his fortune was a severe 
affliction. 

While walking alone in the woods, I met a panther. 

Hard study. A strong dislike. No confidence can 
be placed. Where the house now stands. On the ocean. 
A dangerous undertaking. Ignorance "and vice. I 
would rather. Those who do their duty. Begging in 
the street. Geography furnishes us. Astronomy teaches 
us. Birds' nests. A storm at sea. To preserve our 
health. It is hard work. The life of the merchant. 
Fought bravely. Produces happiness. A large clock. 
The tops of high mountains. A band of robbers. If it 
rain. When my father returns. Are very useful. We 
seldom see. Always show respect. Large farms pro- 
duce. Exercises in composition. Very important. 



LESSON XXXVIII. 

SENTENCES CONTAINING RELATIVE AND PARTI- 
CIPIAL CLAUSES. 

What is a relative clause ? 
What is a participial clause ? 

Who, which, and that, are relative pronouns ; what is to be ob- 
served in using them ? 

Who is used, when the antecedent is the name 
of a person ; which, when it is the name of an in- 
ferior animal, or an object without life; that is 
used in either case. Thus, the ooy who studies ; 



84 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

the house which stands ; the man that is virtuous; 
the dog that barks. 

What is the rule for using commas in the case of relative and 
participial clauses ? (See Rule I., page 59.) 



"Write sentences containing the following rela- 
tive and participial clauses : — 

Example. Who made many scientific discoveries. 
In examining witnesses. 

Sentences. Sir Isaac Newton, icho made many sci- 
entific discoveries, was buried in Westminster Abbey. 

Much time was spent in examining icitnesses. 

Relative Clauses. Those * who are virtuous. The 
man who attends diligently to business. Which I found 
in the street. Whom I esteem very highly. That barks 
at the slightest noise. Which was wrecked at sea. 
"Whose father I much respected. "Who recites his les- 
sons well. All that I have. Whose character is excel- 
lent. The person who reads good books. The city in 
which we live. The country in which we live. Who 
defeated the enemy. Which was given me by a friend. 

Participial Clauses. The weather being pleasant. 
The rain having ceased. The river having overflowed 
its banks. The boat having started. The enemy having 
fled. My brother having returned. The carriage hav- 
ing been broken. While walking by the river. While 
travelling through Ohio. Run over by ;i stage. Hun- 
dreds of men lying on the battle-field Playing and 
shouting in the street, Overcome by fatigue. Accom- 

* The pupil will observe that ill this case, and some others, the 
antecedent is given. 



ADVERBIAL AND VOCATIVE CLAUSES. 85 

panied by a friend. In studying mathematics. By 
attending to your studies. By reading good books. 
In doing good. In buying and selling goods. Having 
arrived at Boston. 



LESSON XXXIX. 

SENTENCES CONTAINING ADVERBIAL AND VOCA- 
TIVE CLAUSES. 

What is an adverbial clause ? Give an example. 
What is a vocative clause ? Give an example. 
What is the rule for using commas in the case of adverbial 
and vocative clauses ? (See Rule I., page 59.) 

EXERCISE. 

Write sentences containing the following ad- 
verbial and vocative clauses : — 

Example. Before I arrived. Gentlemen and ladies. 

Sentences. The vessel had started before I arrived. 
Gentlemen and ladies, I ask your attention to a very 
important subject. 

Adverbial Clauses. A hundred years hence. Where 
we live. In a very improper manner. With great un- 
willingness. Before the vessel arrived in port. When 
the election was held. In the school which I attend. 
Before Columbus discovered America. When we finish 
our lessons. When the lecturer commenced. When the 
boat lands. During the summer months. After winter 
has set in. With great care. After the storm occurred. 
When a man has a bad character. In a book which I 
have read. Where the river rises. In a disagreeable 



86 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

manner. Without any delay. Immediately after the 
battle. When a country has a tyrannical government. 
Vocative Clauses. My friend. My dear Sir. You 
disagreeable fellow. My dear Mary. 



LESSON XL. 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF SENTENCES. 

How many kinds of sentences are there ? (See page 52.) 

What are they ? 

What is a declarative sentence ? an imperative sentence ? an 
interrogative sentence ? an exclamatory sentence ? 

May a declarative sentence be turned into an imperative, an 
interrogative, or an exclamatory sentence ? 

It may. 

Give me an example. 

It snows, is a declarative sentence ; let it snow, 
is imperative ; does it snow f is interrogative ; and 
how it snows ! is exclamatory. 

What word is generally used to introduce an imperative sen- 
tence ? 

Let. Thus : " Let there be silence ; " " Let us go." 

What words are used to introduce an interrogative sentence ? 

The interrogative pronouns, and the words, is, 
was, does, did, has, will. Thus : " Is my son here ? " 
" Does he study his lessons ? " " Will you be there ? " 

What words are used to introduce exclamatory sentences ? 

How and what. Thus : " How disagreeable he 
is! " " What a disagreeable man he is ! n 

EXERCISE. 

Convert the following declarative into the corre- 
sponding interrogative and exclamatory sentences : 



DIFFERENT KINDS OF SENTENCES. 87 

Example. Milton was a great poet. 
Interrogative. Was Milton a great poet ? 
Exclamatory. What a great poet Milton was ! 

1. Sir Isaac Newton was a great philosopher. 

2. Benjamin Franklin wrote many excellent maxims. 

3. A good boy will study hard to learn his lesson. 

4. Pope has left us many admirable lines. 

5. America has attained a desirable rank among the 
nations of the world. 

6. Julia entered the parlor gracefully. 

7. Philadelphia is a large city. 

8. Gratitude is a noble emotion. 

Convert the following declarative into the corre- 
sponding interrogative and imperative sentences : — 
Example. Stephen prepares his lesson well. 
Interrogative. Does Stephen prepare his lesson well ? 
Imperative. Let Stephen prepare his lesson well. 

9. The army marches. 

10. The dog barks. 

11. The cannon roar in honor of victory. 

12. The books are ready. 

13. His good fortune makes him happy. 

14. They did their duty. 

15. Bees gather honey from flowers. 



LESSON XLI. 

EXERCISE. 



Weite six declarative, six imperative, six inter- 
rogative, and six exclamatory sentences, each of 



88 



FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 



which shall contain one of the following words in 
order : — 

Example. Words — happy, speak, come, loss. 

Sentences. Declarative — The good are happy. 

Imperative — Let no one speak. 

Interrogative — Has my brother come f 

Exclamatory — What a loss! 



Camels, 


go, 


arrived, 


accident, 


studious, 


lessons, 


sick, 


unpleasant, 


begins, 


time, 


books, 


storm, 


walking, 


school, 


many, 


found, 


graceful, 


injure, 


sold, 


seen, 


idle, 


keep, 


studied, 


handsome. 



LESSON XLII. 

FORMATION OF SENTENCES. 

(For the answers to these questions, see the first eleven 
Lessons.) 

What is an article ? a noun ? a pronoun ? an adjective ? a verb \ 
an adverb ? a conjunction ? a preposition ? an interjection ? 

What word prefixed to a verb shows that it is in the in- 
finitive mood ? 

To ; to eat, to keep, are in the infinitive mood. 



1. Write five son ten res containing a subject, a transi- 
tive verb, and an object; as, "The bee makes honey." 

2. Write five sentences containing an adjective, a 
noun, a transitive verb, and an object; as, "The^roui- 
dent ant lays up her store." 



VARIETY OF AEKANGEMENT. 89 

3. Write five sentences containing a subject, a tran- 
sitive verb, an object, and an adverb; as, "Louise 
studied her grammar faithfully." 

4. Write five sentences containing a verb in the in- 
finitive mood ; as, " I tried to learn my lesson." 

5. Write five sentences each of which shall have for 
its subject two nouns connected by the conjunction and; 
as, " The lion and the tiger are the fiercest of animals." 



LESSON XLIII. 

VARIETY OF ARRANGEMENT. 

How may we obtain variety in a succession of sentences ? 

By employing a different arrangement of the 
words or clauses, or a different construction. 

When the variety consists in the arrangement, what is it 
called ? 

Variety of Arrangement. 

When the variety consists in a difference of construction, what 
is it called ? 

Variety of Expression. 



Arrange the words in the following sentences 
differently, but in such a way that the meaning 
may remain the same : — 

Example. The night was dark. 

Paris is the capital of France. 
Transposed. Dark was the night. 

The capital of France is Paris, 



90 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

1. Furious was the storm. 

2. Mournfully the wind waved among the branches. 

3. The longest river in Europe is the Volga. 

4. Than virtue nothing is lovelier. 

5. Here lies the lamented Warren. 

6. Grammar teaches us to speak correctly and to 
write accurately. 

7. Of ancient traders, the first and most expert 
were the Phoenicians. 

8. Formerly, it required a week for a person to go 
from New York to Albany. 

9. From Corsica the Carthaginians obtained honey 
and raisins. 

10. At last summer has set in. 

11. Suddenly a shout arose. 

12. We can not prize a good character too highly. 

13. Perhaps you left it at home. 

14. The sheriff seized his prisoner roughly. 

15. Do you not know me, Mary? 

16. How careful ought we to be to avoid vice ! 

17. Let me go, I beseech you. 

18. Generally, the North American Indians are 
dressed in buffalo-skins. 

19. There hangs the picture of my father. 

20. Here stands your servant. 



LESSON XLIV. 

VARIETY OF ARRANGEMENT. 
EXERCISE. 

Arrange the clauses in the following sentences 
differently, but in such a way that the meaning 



VARIETY OF ARRANGEMENT. 91 

may remain the same. The pupil must remember 
to make such changes in the punctuation as may 
be required by the transposition. 

Example. Well pleased with my visit, I returned 
home. 

Transposed. I returned home, well pleased with 
my visit. 

1. Never put off till to-morrow what you can do 
to-day. 

2. Sir Isaac Newton, one of the greatest mathema- 
ticians the world has ever produced, was born in Wools- 
thorpe, England, on Christmas day, A. d. 1642. 

3. Caesar, after having reached the pinnacle of hu- 
man greatness, perished by assassination. 

4. My good friend, where are you going ? 

5. Washington is buried at Mount Yernon, on the 
banks of the Potomac River. 

6. During the night, the enemy moved their camp. 

7. She sunk down in the road, exhausted by fatigue. 

8. Cannon were first used about 500 years ago, at 
the battle of Cressy. 

9. By the code of Lyeurgus, all the Spartans were 
compelled to eat at a common table. 

10. In every part of Europe, we find the French lan- 
guage spoken. 

11. While the clouds thus hid the moon from view,, 
I heard a loud groan. 

12. Improve every moment while you are in school. 

13. We must strive hard, if we wish to excel. 

14. If Columbus had been less persevering, the West- 
ern Continent might not yet have been discovered. 

15. By the enterprising merchants of Venice, the 
first bank was established. 



92 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

16. Although surrounded by comforts and luxuries, 
we may be unhappy. 

17. Vasco de Gama, a Portuguese navigator, in 
1497, discovered the passage to India around the Cape 
of Good Hope. 

18. The Saxons reduced the greater part of Britain 
under their sway. 

19. Herod was carried to his sepulchre on a bier of 
gold. 

20. With a single stroke of his paw, a lion can 
break the back of a horse. 



LESSON XLV. 

VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 

There are a number of ways of altering the construction of a 
sentence, so as to insure variety of expression. To what sen- 
tences does the first of these apply ? 

The first method that we shall consider, applies 
to sentences that contain a subject, a transitive verb, 
and an object ; as, " Caesar conquered Pompey." 

How may the construction be altered, without changing the 
meaning ? 

By making the object the subject, altering the 
form of the verb, and introducing the subject after 
the preposition ly. The sentence given above, 
altered thus, would read, " Pompey was conquered 
by Caesar." 

EXERCISE. 

Alter the following sentences in the manner de- 



VAKIETY OF EXPRESSION. 93 

scribed above, being careful to have them retain 
the same meaning : — 

Example. Virtue alone produces happiness. 
All who know you will admire and respect you. 
Altered. Happiness is produced by virtue alone. 
You will be admired and respected by all who know 
you. 

1. The ancient Egyptians embalmed the bodies of 
the dead. 

2. Sir Isaac Newton discovered the attraction of 
gravitation. 

3. A courtier of Charles VI. of France invented cards, 
to amuse the king during his hours of melancholy. 

4. Integrity secures the esteem of the world. 

5. If the British had subdued our forefathers, we 
would now be under the dominion of a king. 

6. Astronomers calculate eclipses with wonderful 
precision. 

7. Government honored this able statesman with a 
pension for life. 

8. The Chinese may have used gunpowder ages ago. 

9. An agent will furnish visitors with maps of the 
grounds. 

10. The cackling of a flock of geese prevented 
Brennus from taking the citadel of Rome. 

11. What great effects may trifling causes produce ! 

12. An irresistible charge on the part of Murat's 
gallant cavalry, decided the victory. 

13. Two ruffians have attacked and killed an un- 
armed traveller. 

14. A strict government will enforce the laws. 

15. Mersennus says that a little child, with a ma- 



94 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

chine composed of a hundred double pulleys, might 
move the earth itself. 

16. Whatever man has done, man may again do. 

17. Perseverance will overcome every obstacle. 

18. The greatest minds have admired Milton's 
"Paradise Lost". 

19. During the tenth and the eleventh century, the 
monarchs of Europe persecuted the Jews with unre- 
lenting cruelty. 

20. The bayonet is so called from the inhabitants 
of Bayonne, who invented it. 



LESSON XLVI. 

VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 

Is there any other method of obtaining variety of expression, 
besides the one described in the last lesson ? 

There is. 

To what sentences does it apply ? 

To sentences in which there are two or more 
verbs, or two or more clauses, connected by the 
conjunction and; as, " Charles took me aside, and 
thus addressed me." 

How may the construction of such sentences be altered ? 

By changing one of the verbs (usually the firet) 

into a participle, and leaving out the conjunction 
smd; as, "Charles, having taken me aside, thus 
addressed me." 

EXKIiCISE. 

Alter the following sentences in the manner de- 



VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 95 

scribed above ; the verb that is to be changed to a 
participle, is printed in italics : — 

Example. The wind was fair, and we started on 
our voyage. 

The enemy landed, and made instant preparation 
for a march to the capital. 

Altered. The wind being fair, we started on our 
voyage. 

The enemy, having landed, made instant preparation 
for a march to the capital. 

1. The door was opened, and a terrible spectacle 
presented itself to my eyes. 

2. Columbus was convinced that the world was 
round, and resolved to test his theory by experiment. 

3. The battle was finished, and the enemy fell back 
to the river. 

4. Hendrik Hudson ascended the river which now 
bears his name, and founded the city of Albany. 

5. The soil of England is cultivated with great care, 
and the harvests are usually abundant. 

6. Youth is the season of improvement ; do not lose 
one of its precious moments. 

7. The trumpet sounded, and the combatants charged. 

8. My horse threw me and ran away, and I was 
obliged to pursue the rest of my journey on foot. 

9. The Romans had conquered all their enemies, 
and were, at the time of our Saviour's appearance, 
masters of the world. 

10. The door of the cage was left open, and my fa-' 
vorite bird escaped. 

11. Hyenas are often driven to extremity by hunger, 
and enter church-yards, and dig up the bodies of the 
dead, and feed upon them. 



9b FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

12. His faithful page saw the deadly shaft, and ruslied 
before his master, and received it in his own body. 

13. Man rebelled against his Maker, and sin at once 
entered the world. 

14. Napoleon teas safely disposed of in St. Helena, 
and ended, on that little island, his tumultuous life. 

15. Mungo Park teas filled with the spirit of dis- 
covery, and, at the risk of his life, penetrated the in- 
hospitable regions of Africa. 

16. The hardy adventurers threw themselves on the 
ground, and gave thanks to God for the successful 
issue of their enterprise. 



LESSON XLVII. 

SYNONYMES. 
When is one word said to be the Synonynie of another ? 

A word is said to be the Synonynie of another 
word, when it means nearly the same thing. 

Give an example. 

Enough and sufficient are synonymes, because 
they mean nearly the same thing. 

Do synonymes convey precisely the same idea ? 

Not often; but they mean nearly the same 
thing. 

If you wish to find the synonyme of a word, what book will 
assist you ? 

The dictionary. 

May a word have more than one synonyme ? 

Yes, some words have a number of synonymes ; 
thus, reflect, reckon, deem, suppose, 2>orxli r, consider, 
conclude, judge, are all synonymes of the word think. 



SYNONYMES. 



97 



Do you mean that, wherever think is used, any of these 
words may be substituted for it without altering the meaning ? 

No ; but sometimes they may be substituted for 
it, without any change in the meaning. 

EXERCISE. 

"Write out the synonymes of the following words ; 
the more you can find, the better your exercise will 
be. When you are in any difficulty, have recourse 
to your dictionary. 

Model. Changeable. Intend. 

Synonymes. Variable, fickle, inconstant. Design, 
purpose, mean. 



Color, 


hinder, 


grateful, 


bravery, 


attack, 


path, 


possess, 


powerful, 


burden, 


divide, 


vice, 


protect, 


large, 


haste, 


use, 


prize, 


shine, 


chief, 


industry, 


throw, 


tidings, 


abandon, 


sick, 


room, 


weighty, 


tumult, 


destroy, 


fruitful, 


house, 


idle, 


fear, 


forest, 
LES 


careless, 


struggle, 
VIII. 


conquer. 




SON XL 








EXERCISE. 







Write out and punctuate the following sen- 
tences, substituting for each word in italics its 
synonyme, so that the meaning of the sentence 
may not be altered : — 

Model. I am monarch of all I survey, 
I am lord of all I behold. 

1. In Egypt the Nile annually overflows the country 
and thereby renders it fertile 



y» FIE8T LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

2. In many of the West India islands the earth is so 
productive and requires so little cultivation thai plants 
may be said to grow spontaneously 

3. It is reported of the Emperor Titus that when any 
one spoke ill of him he was wont to say that if the 
statements were false they would not injure him and 
that if they were true he had more reason to be angry 
with himself than with the narrator 

4. King James of England on one occasion went out 
of his way to hear a noted preacher The clergyman see- 
ing the king enter departed from the train of his discourse 
and forcibly portrayed the sin of profane swearing for 
which James was notorious When he had concluded the 
monarch thanked him for his sermon but asked what 
connection there was between swearing and his text 
The minister immediately answered Since your majesty 
deigned to come out of your way to meet me I could 
hardly do less than go out of my way to meet you 

5. The enemies' horsemen were coming up at a 
rapid pace and I was obliged to abandon my comrade 
to his fate 

6. Indolence is the cause of many evils 

7. Wealth is desired by all but it is accompanied by 
many troubles 

8. Augurelli a celebrated Italian gave much of his 
attention to alchemy He was convinced that any metal 
could be converted into gold only one thing bothered 
him and that was to fin d out the way Having comjwsed 
a book on this subject he dedicated it to Pope Leo X 
anticipating a rich present in return He was quite 
surprised shortly afterward to receive from his Holiness 
a purse and a letter informing him that as he could 
make gold he needed only a purse to put it in 



CIRCUMLOCUTION. 99 

LESSON XLIX. 

CIRCUMLOCUTION. 

What is Circumlocution ? 

Circumlocution is the use of two or more words 
to express the meaning of one ; thus, for mankind 
we may say the race of men, the human race, 

EXERCISE. 

Express the following single words, and such 
words in the sentences as are in italics, by a cir- 
cumlocution :— 
Model. A sailor. 

The moon is shining. 
JBy Circumlocution. One who spends his life upon 
the ocean. 
The moon is shedding her light around. 

1. Death. Heaven. Astronomy. A king. Youth. 
Benevolence. A city. Agriculture. The sun. A 
guardian. Geography. Women. Dishonesty. In- 
dustry. Autumn. Children. Night. A pronoun. 

2. My brother is dead. 

3. The poor are often happier than the rich. 

4. Beware of avarice. 

5. Virtue is a source of happiness. 

6. The sky is cloudy. 

7. Suicide is a great crime. 

8. The sea is rough. 

9. He is insensible. 

10. Your cousin was working. 



100 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

LESSON L. 

ANALYSIS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

What is a Simple Sentence ? 

A Simple Sentence is one that contains but one 
subject and one predicate; as, "Friendship adds 
to our joys." 

What is a Compound Sectence ? 

A Compound Sentence is one that is composed of 
two or more simple sentences; as, "Friendship 
adds to our joys, and diminishes our sorrows." 

What is meant by analyzing compound sentences ? 

Separating them into the simple sentences of 
which they are composed. 

Analyze the compound sentence given above. 

Friendship adds to our joys. Friendship dimin- 
ishes our sorrows. 

What word was used in the compound sentence to connect the 
two simple sentences ? 

The conjunction and. 

Is any other part of speech, besides the conjunction, used for 
this purpose ? 

Yes, the relative pronoun is often used ; as, 
" Modesty, which is one of the most attractive vir- 
tues, is a great preservative against vice" 

Analyze the compound sentence just given. 

Modesty is one of the most attractive virtues. 

Modesty is a great preservative against 

In analyzing a compound sentence, what must we do? 

We must remove the connecting word, if there 
be any, and repeat, in each simple sentence, such 
words as may be necessary to complete the sense. 



ANALYSIS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. 101 



Analyze the following compound sentences : — 

Example. Mahomet, the founder of the Mahometan 
religion, did not hesitate to work with his own hands ; 
he kindled his own fire, swept his room, made his bed, 
milked his ewes and camels, mended his stockings, and 
scoured his sword. 

Simple Sentences. Mahomet was the founder of the 
Mahometan religion. 

Mahomet did not hesitate to work with his own hands. 

Mahomet kindled his own fire. 

Mahomet swept his own room. 

Mahomet made his own bed. 

Mahomet milked his own ewes and camels. 

Mahomet mended his own stockings. 

Mahomet scoured his own sword. 

1. Aristarchus of Samos, who was a little wiser than 
his contemporaries, was the first to assert that the 
earth moved. 

2. Whereupon he was accused, before the court of 
Areopagus, of violating morality and introducing inno- 
vations in religion. 

3. Aristotle, one of the most sensible of the ancient 
philosophers, thought that the earth was shaped like a 
timbrel. 

5. "Without books, justice is dormant, philosophy 
lame, letters are dumb, and all tilings are involved in 
darkness. 

5. iEsop and Terence, those admirable writers, were 
slaves. 

6. The sun shines by day, and the moon by night. 

7. Modern times, with all their boasted progress, 



102 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

have never produced as strong a man as Samson, as 
meek a man as Moses, or as wise a man as Solomon. 

8. A simpleton fancied, in a dream, that he had trod- 
den on a nail, and, on waking, bound up his foot. 

9. Another simpleton, learning the cause, said : " I 
do not pity you, for why do you sleep without sandals ? " 

10. Caesar crossed the Rubicon, overran Italy, en- 
tered Rome, and seized upon the public treasury. 



LESSON LI. 

SYNTHESIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

What is the opposite of analysis ? 

Synthesis. 

What is meant by the Synthesis of simple sentences ? 

The union of two or more simple sentences in 
such a way as to form one compound sentence. 

In such a union, what changes are necessary ? 

The words that are repeated in the simple sen- 
tences must be omitted, and the proper connective 
(a conjunction or a relative pronoun) inserted. 



Unite the simple sentences given in each para- 
graph below, into one compound sentence : — 

Example. The White Sea is so called on account 
of its color. The White Sea is constantly frozen over. 
The White Sea is covered with snow. 

Compound Sentence. The White Sea is so called 
on account of its color, as it is constantly frozen over 
and covered with snow. 



SYNTHESIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. 103 

1. I love to contemplate the wonders of the earth. 
I love to reflect on the glory of the Creator. 

2. Beware of avarice. Avarice is incompatible with 
reason. Avarice has ruined the souls of myriads. 

3. Let your pleasure be moderate. Let your pleas- 
ure be seasonable. Let your pleasure be innocent. 
Let your pleasure be becoming. 

4. Without modesty, beauty is ungraceful. Without 
modesty, learning is unattractive. Without modesty, 
wit is disgusting. 

5. Wealth is much sought after. Wealth brings 
with it many troubles. 

6. In Spitzbergen there is a long day of six months. 
In Spitzbergen there is a long night of six months. 

7. Charlemagne was the most powerful monarch of 
his age. Charlemagne added much to his glory by in- 
viting learned men to his court. Charlemagne added 
much to his glory by inviting scientific men to his court. 

8. Black pepper is produced in Java. Black pepper 
is produced in Sumatra. Black pepper grows upon a 
vine. The vine resembles our grape-vine. 

9. Plato was told that some enemies had spoken ill 
of him. Plato said, " It matters not." Plato said, " I 
will endeavor so to live that no one shall believe them." 

10. Xerxes resolved to invade Greece. Xerxes 
raised an army. The army consisted of two millions 
of men. This was the greatest force that was ever 
brought into the field. 

11. The hills are covered with a carpet of green. 
The meadows are covered with a carpet of green. 

12. Life is short. Life is unsatisfactory. Life is un- 
certain. 



104 FIKST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

LESSON LII. 

STYLE. 

What is Style ? 

Style is the particular manner in which a writer 
or speaker expresses his thoughts by words. 

From what is the word style derived ? 

From the Latin word stylus, a pointed steel in- 
strument which the Komans used in writing upon 
their waxen tablets. 

Do the styles of most writers differ ? 

They do ; no two writers are likely to express 
the same idea in precisely the same manner. 

What are the principal kinds of style ? 

The Simple, the Florid, the Nervous, the Con- 
cise, the Diffuse. 

What is meant by Simple Style ? * 

Simple Style is that in which the thoughts are 
expressed in a natural manner, without any at- 
tempt at effect. 

What is meant by Florid Style ? 

Florid Style is that in which there is a great 
deal of ornament. 

What is meant by Nervous Style ? 

Nervous Style is that in which forcible sentences 
are employed, and which makes a strong impres- 
sion on the reader or hearer. 

What is meant by Concise Style ? 

Concise Style is that in which the thoughts are 
expressed in very few words. 



* Examples of the different kinds of style will be found in the 
Exercise at the end of this Lesson. 



STYLE. 105 

What is meant by Diffuse Style ? 

Diffuse Style is that of a writer or speaker who 
enlarges on his thoughts, and uses many words to 
express them. 

To what should the style of an author always be suited ? 

To the subject he is treating. 

There are certain properties which the style of every good 
writer must possess ; what are these ? 

Purity, Propriety, Precision, Clearness, Strength, 
and Harmony. 

EXEECISE. 

Copy and punctuate the following extracts,which 
are examples of the different kinds of style : — 

Simple Style. 
" Sweet was the sound when oft at evening's close 
Up yonder hill the village murmur rose 
There as I passed with careless steps and slow 
The mingled notes came softened from below 
The swain responsive as the milk-maid sung 
The sober herd that lowed to meet their young 
The noisy geese that gabbled o'er the pool 
The playful children just let loose from school 
The watch-dog's voice that bayed the whispering wind 
And the loud laugh that spoke the vacant mind 
These all in sweet confusion sought the shade 
And filled each pause the nightingale had made " 

Florid Style. " His charmed numbers flow on like 
the free current of a melodious stream whose associa- 
tions are with the sunbeams and the shadows the leafy 
boughs the song of the forest birds the dew upon the 
flowery bank and all things sweet and genial and de- 
lightful whose influence is around us in our happiest 



106 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

moments and whose essence is the wealth that lies 
hoarded in the treasury of nature " 

JVervow Style. 

" Vengeance calls you quick be ready 

Rouse ye in the name of God 

Onward onward strong and steady 

Dash to earth the oppressor's rod 

Vengeance calls ye brave ye brave 

Rise and spurn the name of slave " 

Concise Style. 
" He touched his harp and nations heard entranced 
As some vast river of unfailing source 
Rapid exhaustless deep his numbers flowed 
And oped new fountains in the human heart 
* * * With Nature's self 

He seemed an old acquaintance free to jest 
At will with all her glorious majesty 
He laid his hand upon the ocean's mane 
And played familiar with his hoary locks 
Stood on the Alps stood on the Apennines 
And with the thunder talked as friend to friend 
Suns moons and stars and clouds his sisters were 
Rocks mountains meteors seas and winds and storms 
His brothers younger brothers whom he scarce 
As equals deemed " 

Diffuse Style. " The fame of his discovery had re- 
sounded throughout the nation and as the route of Co- 
lumbus lay through several of the finest and most popu- 
lous provinces of Spain his journey appeared like the 
progress of a sovereign Wherever he passed the sur- 
rounding country poured forth its inhabitants who lined 
the roads and thronged the villages In the large towns 



PURITY. 107 

the streets windows and balconies were filled with eager 
spectators who rent the air with acclamations His jour- 
ney was continually impeded by the multitude pressing 
to gain a sight of him and of the Indians who were re- 
garded with as much admiration as if they had been na- 
tives of another planet It was impossible to satisfy the 
craving curiosity which assailed himself and his attend- 
ants at every stage with innumerable questions popular 
rumor as usual had exaggerated the truth and had filled 
the newly found country with all kinds of wonders " 



LESSON LIII. 



What is the first essential property of a good style ? 

Purity. 

In what does Purity consist ? 

Purity of style consists in the use of such words 
and modes of expression as are warranted by good 
authority. 

What is meant by " good authority " ? 

The usage of the best writers and speakers. 

How many rules must be observed, to insure purity of style ? 

Three :— 

I. Do not use foreign words or modes of con- 
struction, when there are pure English ones that 
are just as expressive. 

II. Do not use obsolete words, or such as have 
fallen into disuse. 

III. Avoid words that are not authorized by 
good writers. 



108 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

Mention some of the foreign words that are often introduced 
by writers who violate the first rule relating to purity, and the 
corresponding English words that should be used instead of them. 

Hauteur, haughtiness. fimeute, disturbance. 

Delicatesse, delicacy. Bagatelle, trifle. 

Politesse, politeness. JVHmporte, no matter. 

A propos, appropriate. JVous verrons, we shall see. 

Mention some obsolete words, and what it is proper to use in- 
stead of them at the present day. 

Let, hinder. Tries, wearies. 

Behest, command. Wot, know. 

Quoth, said. Wist, knew. 

Erst, formerly. Sith, since. 

EXEECISE. 

Correct the following sentences, so that they 
may contain no violation of the rules for purity : — 
Example. I can not believe it, but nous verrons. 
He repented him of his fault. 
Corrected. I can not believe it, but we shall see. 
He repented of his fault. . 

1. His manners were not marked by politesse, but 
by an offensive hauteur. 

2. I have been disappointed, but nHryporte. 

3. Fearing that they might become involved in the 
bmeute, they remained in the house. 

4. My friend made some remarks quite d propos to 
the occasion. 

5. The fleeting joys of this world are but bagatelles. 

6. I can go where likes me best. 

7. Thy voice we hear, and thy behests obey. 

8. " Come," quoth he, " lay aside thine armor." 



PROPRIETY. 109 

9. I wot not who it was. 

10. It irks me to see such obstinacy. 

11. The nobles of England dwelt erst in strongly- 
fortified castles. 

12. Having nothing to do, he employed his time in 
stroaming about the fields. 

13. Thy speech bewrayeth thee. 

14. He comes to the city dailily. 

15. I admire his delicatesse and candidness. 

16. Her amiableness endears her to all her friends. 

17. His severe administration of the laws rendered 
him very impopular. 

18. St. Augustine lived godlily. 

19. I could not account for his merriness. 

20. Damp weather is very unagreeable. 



LESSON LIV. 

PROPRIETY. 

What is the second essential property of a good style ? 

Propriety. 

In what does Propriety consist ? 

Propriety consists in the selection of such words 
as the best usage has appropriated to the ideas in- 
tended to be expressed. 

To insure propriety, what kind of expressions must we be 
careful to avoid ? 

Low and vulgar expressions, which are often 
used in conversation, but are not sufficiently digni- 
fied to be admitted into composition. 



110 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 



The words in italics in the following sentences 
are to be corrected, so that there may be no viola- 
tion of propriety : — 

Example. My father has got the blues. 

Corrected. My father is in low spirits. 

1. I saw with half an eye that it was necessary for 
me to observe great caution. 

2. As the noise disturbed me, I told him to hold his 
tongue. 

3. They have got the small-pox. 

4. Having run up to see what the matter teas, I be- 
came involved among the rioters, and, before I could 
extricate myself, came near getting my head broken. 

5. He is not a bit better than he ought to be. 

6. My cousin is mad at me. 

7. He saw the horses dashing toward him full split, 
and, making a desperate leap, escaped by the skin of 
his teeth. 

8. Every one sets store by a good boy. 

9. I would as lief live in America as in Europe. 

10. James is something of a scholar. 

11. She is in a bad fix. 

12. John turns up his nose at every thing. 

13. If a clerk cheat, he will soon be turned out of 
his situation. 

14. He tries to curry favor with Ins superiors. 

15. Their coming in turned every thing topsy-turvy. 

16. We have a great ??ii?id to go to Harlem to-morrow. 

17. She is a very stingy woman. 



PRECISION. Ill 

LESSON LV. 

PBECISION. 

What is the third essential property of a good style ? 

Precision. 

In what does Precision consist ? 

Precision consists in the use of such words as 
"exactly express the idea intended to be conveyed. 

In what is precision most frequently violated ? 

In the use of words which are generally con- 
sidered synonymous, but which do not convey the 
same meaning. 

Give an example. 

Courage and fortitude are generally thought to 
mean the same thing ; but their exact significations 
are widely different. Courage is shown in braving 
danger ; fortitude, in supporting pain. In such a 
sentence as this, "John displayed great courage, 
while undergoing the operation," precision is vio- 
lated. The word courage is misused, and the sen- 
tence should be, " John displayed great fortitude, 
while undergoing the operation." 

Mention some other words that are often used as synonymous. 

Discovery and invention ; effect and influence ; 
custom and habit / vacant and empty • great and big. 

In what other way is precision often violated ? 

By substituting for the proper word, another 
word formed from the same primitive, but which 
ought to be differently applied ; as, observation for 
observance, conscience for consciousness. 

Give an example. 



112 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

"Negligence of duty often produces misery." 
There is a violation of precision in the use of negli- 
gence for neglect. The sentence should read thus • 
" Neglect of duty often produces misery." 



The words in italics, in the following sentences, 
are to be altered, so that there may be no violation 
of precision. Examples are given above. 

I. Columbus invented America. Newton invented 
the attraction of gravitation. 

" 2. The discovery of steamboats produced a most ben- 
eficial influence on the commerce of the whole world. 

3. The cavalry charged with their accustomed for- 
titude. 

4. Smoking is a bad custom. 

5. James endured the pain with a great deal of courage. 

6. The house was closed, and we naturally supposed 
it to be empty. 

7. All the furniture had been removed ; every room 
was vacant. 

8. He is a very talented and studious boy, and will, 
no doubt, become a big man. 

9. A frog once swelled herself out, till she thought 
herself greater than an ox. 

10. Conscienceoi integrity supports the mUfortunate, 

II. The observation of the Sabbath is a distinguish- 
ing mark of Christian nations. 

12. The bird escaped through her neglect. 

13. The bird died through her negligence. 

14. The farmers of Ohio pay great attention to the 
culture of corn. 



CLEARNESS. 113 

15. Proposals were then made by the opposite party, 
which we were invited to discuss with their agent. 

16. The prince next made propositions of marriage 
to the daughter of the King of Denmark. 

17. Intoleration in religion has been the cause of 
much suffering. 

18. The magistrate, having heard the prisoner's story, 
expressed his disbelief of every word he had uttered. 



LESSON LVI. 

CLEARNESS. 

What is the fourth essential property of a good style ? 

Clearness. 

In what does Clearness consist ? 

Clearness consists in such a use and arrange- 
ment of words and clauses as at once distinctly in- 
dicate the meaning of the writer or speaker. 

What is the opposite of clearness ? 

Obscurity. 

What are the most frequent causes of obscurity ? 

The use of ambiguous or equivocal words, and 
the improper arrangement of words or clauses. 

Repeat the three rules for promoting clearness, that relate to 
the use of words. 

Rule I. Avoid ambiguous expressions. 

Utile II. Do not make the same pronoun refer 
to different objects in the same sentence. 

Hide III. Insert words that are wanting, when 
they can not readily be supplied by the mind. 



114 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 



Correct the following sentences, so that they 
may contain no violation of Rules L, II., and III., 
for the promotion of clearness : — 

Example. 1. The reproof of the erring is a duty. 

2. Charles promised his father that he would never 
forget his advice. 

3. We love who flatter us. 

Corrected. The first sentence is ambiguous ; it may mean either 
that it is the duty of the erring to reprove others, or that it is l/i£ 
duty of others to reprove tlie erring. "We will therefore alter it 
thus : — 

1. To reprove the erring is a duty. 

The second sentence contains a violation of Rule II., because 
the first his refers to Charles, while the second refers to father. 
This fault may be corrected by making the sentence read thus : — 

2. Charles promised his father, " I will never forget 
thy advice." 

In the third sentence, the word that is omitted can not readily 
be supplied by the mind, and we must therefore insert it : — 

3. We love those who flatter us. 

1. We speak that we know. 

2. We dislike who dislike us. 

3. My beating did him good. (Ambiguous, because 
it may mean either the beating I gave him, or the beat- 
ing he gave me.) 

4. The love of a parent is a natural feeling. 

5. Our rebuke had its intended effect. 

6. The officer's instructions were plain. 

7. We are naturally inclined to praise who praise us. 

8. Who is most industrious is most happy. 

9. There were several of the crew died on the passage. 



CLEARNESS. 115 

10. The worst can be said of him is, that he is some- 
times inattentive. 

11. There are many men waste their lives in idleness. 

12. Galileo was led to invent the pendulum, by a 
chandelier he frequently observed swinging to and fro 
in the cathedral of Florence. 

13. The farmer went to his neighbor, and told him 
that his cattle were in his field. 

14. Damon told the king that he would not comply 
with his demands. 

15. The noblema?i > s summons was unheeded. 

16. The clerk told his employer, whatever he did, he 
could not please him. 

17. There was one man was struck by the ball. 

18. It was the bodies of distinguished persons only, 
were embalmed by the ancient Egyptians. 



LESSON LVII. 

CLEARNESS. 

In what does clearness consist ? 

What is the opposite of clearness ? 

Repeat the three rules for promoting clearness, that relate to 
the use of words. 

Repeat the rule that relates to the arrangement of words and 
clauses. 

Place words and clauses as near as possible to 
the words to which they relate. 

What words are most frequently misplaced ? 

Adverbs ; particularly only and not only. 

What is the effect of their being misplaced ? 

They are thereby made to modify a different 



116 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

word from the one intended, and the whole mean- 
ing of the sentence is changed. 

Give an example. 

"He not only owns a house, but also a large 
farm" Not only, as it now stands, modifies the 
verb owns, and from the beginniDg of the sentence 
one would suppose that another verb was to follow 
— that he not only owns the house, but lives in it, 
or something of that kind. Whereas not only is 
intended to modify house, and it should be placed 
as near it as possible ; thus, " lie owns not only a 
house, hut also a large farm." 

How should a relative clause be placed ? 

Immediately after its antecedent. 

That you may accomplish this, how must you alter the follow- 
ing sentence, in which, it will be seen, another noun stands be- 
tween the antecedent and the relative clause ? "A servant will 
obey a master's orders, that he loves.'''' 

Change master's to of a master, and place or- 
ders before it ; thus, " A servant will obey the 
orders of a master that he loves." We thus bring 
the relative clause immediately after the antece- 
dent, master. 

Alter in this way the following sentences, so that the relative 
clause may immediately follow its antecedent : — 

1. The mariner's compass was Gioia's invention, a 
celebrated mathematician of Naples. 

2. Have you read Tasso's work, the immortal Italian 
poet? 

EXERCISE. 

Arrange the words and clauses in the following 
sentences in such a way that there may be no vio- 
lation of the last rule for promoting clearness : — 



CLEARNESS. 117 

Example. 1. The mate saved a man from drown- 
ing, who was an excellent swimmer. 

2. The man was digging a well, with a Roman nose. 

3. It is my friend's son, whom I love so well. 

4. We should not only love our relatives, but our 
friends also. 

Properly Arranged. 1. The mate, who was an ex- 
cellent swimmer, saved a man from drowning. 

2. The man with a Roman nose, was digging a well. 

3. It is the son of my friend, whom I love so well. 

4. We should love, not only our relatives, but our 
friends also. 

1. The Romans now proclaimed war against the 
Parthians, who had conquered all the rest of the world. 

2. Glass windows were first used in England, A. d. 
674, as we learn from Bede's works, the venerable 
historian. 

3. Many of the best English authors flourished in 
Queen Elizabeth's reign, who patronized not only lit- 
erary men, but herself pretended to be an author. 

4. The lady was sewing with sore eyes. 

5. Boston was Franklin's birthplace, the celebrated 
American philosopher, who not only won the respect 
of his own country, but of all Europe. 

6. Washington not only won the respect, but the 
love, of all true Americans. 

7. Dr. Johnson was once arrested for a debt of five 
guineas, the author of the dictionary. 

8. Sir Isaac Newton's great mind was principally 
directed to mathematics. 

9. The ungenerous person only thinks of himself. 

10. The horse is ploughing with a switch tail. 



118 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

11. This work, being afflicted with the rheumatism, 
I am obliged at present to discontinue. 

12. I was afraid to ride a horse, having a disease 
of the heart. 

13. The disorderly persons were removed from the 
room, in consequence of being intoxicated, by the 
assistance of several gentlemen present. 

14. The Emperor Augustus was a patron of learned 
men, at least. 

15. So utterly was Carthage destroyed, that we are 
unable to point out the place where it stood at the 
present day. 

16. The steamer from Liverpool is soon expected to 
arrive. 



LESSON LVIII. 

STRENGTH. 

What is the fifth essential property of a good style ? 

Strength. 

In what does Strength consist ? 

Strength consists in sucli a use and arrangement 
of words as make a deep impression on the mind 
of the reader or bearer. 

"Would strength be a characteristic of the following sentence ? 
— " The general ordered the captain to order the soldiers to observe 
good order." 

No. 

"What makes it weak ? 

The repetition of the word order. 

What is this fault in writing called V 

Tautology. 



STRENGTH. 119 

What is Tautology ? 

Tautology is the repetition of the same, or a sim- 
ilar, word in a sentence. 

How may tautology be corrected ? 

By substituting a synonyme for the word re- 
peated. 

What is a synonyme ? (See Lesson XLVIL) 
Correct in this way the sentence given above. 

" The general directed the captain to command 
the soldiers to observe good order." 

In the sentence, " We looked out of the window, and took a view" 
does the clause, took a view, add any thing to the meaning ? 

It does not. 

What, then, is its effect on the sentence ? 

It weakens the sentence. 

What is this fault called ? 

Redundancy. 

What is Redundancy ? 

Kedundancy is the repetition of an idea in the 
same sentence. 

How may redundancy be corrected ? 

By leaving out the superfluous word or clause. 

Correct in this way the sentence given above. 

" We looked out of the window." 

What two short rules will conduce much to strength of style ? 

Rule I. Avoid tautology. 
Bide II. Avoid redundancy. 

EXERCISE. 

Correct the tautology and redundancy in the 
following sentences : — 

Example. 1. He said that his father said that he 
would not leave the city. 

2. "Washington was a good and excellent man. 



120 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

Corrected, 1. He stated that his father said that 
he would not leave the city. 

2. Washington was an excellent man. 

1. The sexton told the minister that he had tolled 
the bell for an hour. 

2. He went to Baltimore by steamboat, and thence 
went to Philadelphia by railroad. 

3. Mahomet was distinguished by the dignity and 
majesty of his person. 

4. She is so lovely a woman that no one can help 
loving her. 

5. The ancient Egyptians used to use myrrh, spices, 
and nitre, for embalming the dead bodies of the deceased. 

6. Sit down, and take a seat. 

7. The brilliant brightness of the sun makes all na- 
ture look lively and animated. 

8. The children are playing in the umbrageous shad- 
ow of a shady oak. 

9. They returned back again to the same place from 
whence they came. 

10. While travelling through Russia, we met a 
traveller, who, in seven days, had travelled over a 
thousand miles. 

11. Generals are generally men of decision and energy. 

12. No Christian will revenge himself on his ene- 
mies, and take vengeance on his foes. 

13. Charlemagne found that his subjects were very 
ignorant, and therefore founded several seminaries of 
learning ; but all his attempts and efforts were insuffi- 
cient and unable to enlighten the darkness of his age. 

14. No learning is generally so dearly bought, or so 
valuable when it is bought, as the learning that we 
learn in the school of experience. 



STRENGTH. 121 

LESSON LIX. 

STRENGTH. 

In what does strength consist ? 
What is tautology ? 
What is redundancy ? 

Repeat the two short rules for promoting strength. 
Give three more rules, the observance of which will conduce 
much to strength of style. 

Rule HI. Do not use the conjunction and too 
much, or let it commence a sentence. 

Rule IV. Do not end a sentence with a prepo- 
sition, an unimportant word, or a succession of 
short words. 

Rule V. When there are several similar de- 
pendent clauses, as a general thing, place the long- 
est last, and do not let a weaker assertion follow a 
stronger. 

EXERCISE. 

Correct the following sentences, so that there 
may be no violation of the rules just given : — 

Example. 1. Idleness, and luxury, and pleasure, 
destroy many a youth. 

2. Ingratitude is a crime that I can not accuse my- 
self of. 

3. Catiline plunged into every species of iniquity, 
and left the path of virtue. 

Corrected. 1. Idleness, luxury, and pleasure, destroy 
many a youth. 

2. Ingratitude is a crime of which I can not accuse 
myself. 

6 



122 FIRST LESSONS EN COMPOSITION. 

3. Catiline left the path of virtue, and plunged into 
every species of iniquity. 

1. Charlemagne was a successful warrior, and a sound 
statesman, and an able monarch. 

2. And he evinced incredible activity ; he superin- 
tended the public improvements, and managed the 
affairs of the kingdom, and still found time to foster 
literature and the arts. 

3. He is one that I can not depend on. 

4. Galileo made many discoveries in astronomy, but 
he was imprisoned on account of them. 

5. Charity ought to exert an influence over all our 
actions, and regulate our speech. 

6. The faith which Mahomet professed, and which 
he was the author of, soon spread over Arabia, and 
Turkey, and the northern part of Africa. 

7. His conduct was disgraceful ; it was unbecoming. 

8. There are many mysteries which we can not un- 
derstand, yet which we must believe in. 

9. His assistance I am sure of. 

10. Robert Burns, although originally a poor plough- 
man, was one that men of letters were glad to be ac- 
quainted with, and associate with. 

11. When one is out of health, life becomes a bur- 
den, and there is no pleasure in it. 

12. His gross excesses, and indulgence in pleasure, 
cut him off at an early age. 



LESSON LX. 

HARMONY. 

What is the sixth essential property of a good style ? 



Harmony. 



HAKMONY. 123 

In what does Harmony consist ? 

Harmony consists in that smooth and easy flow 
which pleases the ear. 

What words are, for the most part, inharmonious ? 

1. Such as are derived from long compound 
words ; as, sobermindedness, shamefacedness. 

2. Such as contain a great number of conso- 
nants ; as, phthisic, asthma. 

3. Such as are composed of a number of short 
syllables, with the accent on or near the first ; as, 
primarily, temporarily. 

What combination of words is found to be inharmonious ? 

A succession of words of the same length. Thus, 
" no Jcmd of joy can long please us" is by no 
means as harmonious as, " no species of joy can 
long delight us ". 

What other combination of words should be avoided ? 

A succession of words that resemble each other 
in the sound of any of their syllables. Thus, " a 
fair fairy" " a mild child" are less harmonious 
than " a handsome fairy" " a gentle child". 

As to the general arrangement of words and clauses, what is 
the best guide ? 

The ear. 

What kmd of style is generally harmonious ? 

A strong style. 

EXERCISE. 

Correct the following sentences in such a way 
that their harmony may be increased. When any 
particular word causes the want of harmony, it is 
in italics. 



124 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

Example. 1. Shamefacedness has been a charac- 
teristic of many distinguished men. 

2. He went to Rome with a friend.* 

3. This I consider to be a true union. 

Corrected. 1. Bashfulness has been a character- 
istic of many distinguished men. 

2. He proceeded to Rome with a friend. 

3. This I consider to be a true friendship. 

1. All rich men have a sly way of jesting, which 
would make no great show were they not rich men.* 

2. Reason seldom governs passion, but passion often 
governs reason, f 

3. The slow horse goes not to the race till it is done.* 

4. Camoens lived temporarily in the East Indies. 

5. Many men disregard their duty. 

6. In i/idia, ^/mocent infants are thrown into the 
Ganges. 

7. Peace should be sought for by us and by all.* 

8. The peaceableness of his disposition gained him 
many friends. 

9. He kept wriggling in a very uneasy manner. 

10. Pope was accustomed to speak derogatorily of 
his friends. 

11. Her cheerful temper and pleasant humor pro- 
cured her general esteem. f 

12. All that afflicts us here will pass away soon. 

13. The seas shall waste, and rocks shall fall to dust. 

14. The favorabletiess with which the Waverley 
novels were received, is almost incredible. 



* Too many words of one syllable, 
f Too many words of two syllables. 



UNITY. 125 

15. Seizing the first opporftmity, I im-portuned him 
for his assistance. 

16. The homely home of poverty is often the seat 
of greater happiness than the grandest mansion. 

1 7. It is possible to possess wisdom without learning. 

18. Some regard sobermindedness as essential to a 
good character. 

19. He repressed the expression which was on his lips. 

20. He conducted the business unsatisfactorily. 



LESSON LXI. 

UNITY. 

What does every sentence contain ? 

One leading thought, or proposition. 

May it not contain more than one proposition ? 

It may, if they are intimately connected with 
the leading one, and properly introduced. 

What do you mean by properly introduced? 

Introduced without too frequent a change of 
subject. 

Give an example. 

" My friends turned lack, after we reached the 
vessel, on board of which I was received with kind- 
ness by the passengers, who vied with each other 
in showing me attention" In this sentence we 
have no less than four subjects, friends, we, I, 
who ; and the frequent change produces great con- 
fusion in the mind. 

What is the fault in this sentence called ? 

A violation of Unity. 



126 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

In what does Unity consist ? 

Unity consists in the restriction of a sentence 
to one leading proposition, modified only by such 
kindred ideas as are closely connected with it. 

Give an example of a sentence in which unity is violated by 
joining two propositions that have no connection. 

" Archbishop Tillotson died in this year. He 
was exceedingly beloved by King William and 
Queen Mary, who nominated Dr. Tennison, bishop 
of Lincoln, to succeed him." In the last sentence 
there is a gross violation of unity, in connecting 
the nomination of Dr. Tennison with the great 
love entertained by the king and queen for Arch- 
bishop Tillotson. 

Give three rules that will conduce to the preservation of unity. 

Rule I. Introduce as few subjects as possible 
into a sentence. 

Rule II. Do not crowd into one sentence things 
that have no connection. 

Rule III. Avoid the introduction of long pa- 
rentheses. 

Are parentheses as much used as they formerly were ? 

No; good writers of the present day, for the 
most part, avoid them altogether. 

Are all parentheses inadmissible ? 

No ; short ones, when properly introduced, may 
often be used with advantage ; but in long and 
complicated ones the mind is distracted from the 
leading proposition, and obscurity and weakness 
ensue. 

When a violation of unity occurs, how are we to correct it ? 

I. If it proceeds from a variety of subjects, get 



UNITY. 127 

rid of some of them, by adopting participial 
clauses, or a different form of the verb. 

Thus, the first example of a violation of unity 
given above, may be corrected as follows : — " My 
friends having turned "back after we reached the 
vessel, the passengers received me on "board with 
"kindness, and vied with each other in showing me 
attention? The sentence, as thus corrected, has 
but two subjects, we and passengers. 

II. If it proceeds from the introduction of two 
or more unconnected propositions, or of a paren- 
thesis, we must separate the sentence into two or 
more shorter sentences. 

Thus, the second example of a violation of unity 
given above, may be corrected as follows : — "Arch- 
bishop Tillotson died in this year. He was exceed- 
ingly beloved by King William and Queen Mary. 
Dr. Tennison, bishop of Lincoln, vjas nominated 
to succeed him? 

EXEKCISE. 

Correct the following sentences, so that they 
may contain no violation of unity. The pupil 
will, of course, make such changes in the punctu- 
ation as may be required. 

Examples of this fault and its correction have been given 
above. 

1. The next lady to whom I was introduced was the 
Duchess of Devonshire, who received me with great af- 
fability, and, no long time afterward, had her neck bro- 
ken in consequence of being thrown from her carriage. 



128 FIKST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

2. Lord Bacon's maxims are full of philosophy ; but 
he was a very mean man. 

3. The bear is capable of strong attachment, and its 
flesh makes very juicy and excellent food. 

4. Father Carli says that the camel, which is the 
most patient of animals, retains the remembrance of an 
injury that has been done to it, until an opportunity 
of revenge occurs. 

5. The dog is an animal of wonderful sagacity, and 
it is used by the Esquimaux for drawing sleds. 

6. The quicksilver mines of Idria, in Austria, (which 
were discovered in 1797, by a peasant, who, catching 
some water from a spring, found the tub so heavy that 
he could not move it, and the bottom covered with a 
shining substance which turned out to be mercury,) 
yield, every year, between 300,000 and 400,000 pounds 
of that valuable metal. 

7. The trappers of the Rocky Mountains obtain the 
necessaries of life in exchange for beaver-skins, which 
are worth from four to eight dollars a pound. 

8. The first gold pens (which have now come into 
use both in this country and in Europe, and which are 
generally preferred to any other kind) were made in 
1836. 



LESSON LX1I. 

A REVIEW. 

What is style ? (See Lesson LII.) From what is the word styh 
derived ? What are the principal kinds of style ? Describe sim- 
ple style ; florid style ; nervous style ; concise style ; diffuse style. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE. 129 

Mention the six essential properties of a good style. 

In what does purity consist ? (See Lesson LIII.) What three 
classes of words do the rules for purity forbid us to use ? 

In what does propriety consist ? (See Lesson LIV.) What 
kind of expressions does propriety forbid us to use ? 

In what does precision consist ? (See Lesson LV.) In what 
way is precision often violated ? Mention some words that are 
often used as synonymes, but which really differ in their meaning. 

In what does clearness consist ? (See Lessons LVI. and LVII.) 
What is the opposite of clearness ? To promote clearness, what 
words must be avoided ? What is the rule with regard to making 
the same pronoun refer to different objects ? When must we in- 
sert words that are omitted ? How must words and clauses be 
placed ? What words are most frequently misplaced ? 

In what does strength consist ? (See Lessons LVIII. and LIX.) 

What is tautology ? How may it be corrected ? 

What is redundancy ? How may it be corrected ? 

Eepeat the two short rules for the promotion of strength. 
What rule relates to the conjunction and? With what must you 
be careful not to end a sentence ? When you have several similar 
dependent clauses, which should come last ? When you have sev- 
eral assertions, which should come last ? 

In what does harmony consist ? (See Lesson LX.) What three 
classes of words are, for the most part, inharmonious ? What 
combinations of words are found to be inharmonious ? What is 
the best guide for the general arrangement of words and clauses ? 

In what does unity consist? (See Lesson LXI.) Repeat the 
three rules for the preservation of unity. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE. 

Punctuate the following sentences, and correct 
them so that they may contain no violation of the 
rules for purity, propriety, precision, clearness, 
strength, harmony, and unity : — 

1. In the last Punic war the Romans soon got the 
upper hand of the Carthaginians 

2. The earth moves round the sun at a quick rate 



130 FIEST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

3. A French savant at a late meeting of the literati 
and scientific men of Paris by a chemical process froze 
some drops of water in a red-hot cup 

4. The sky in New Holland is so singular and so 
beautiful in appearance that even the writers' descrip- 
tions who have been there can give us no adequate 
idea respecting it 

5. No nation on the earth are so generally cheerful 
and light-hearted that I have met with as the French 

6. He endeavored to disarm my fears by ordering the 
army who were all well armed to lay aside their arms 

7. He looked coldly at me and eyed me sternly 

8. The criminals were next placed in an enormous car 

9. "We know that it is hard to do right still let us 
try to do it 

10. Amethyst means ' that which does not intoxicate ' 
and it was so called because it was a prevalent doctrine 
among the ancients that wine would lose its intoxicating 
influence if drunk from a cup of this precious stone 

11. In the middle ages it was a habit for pilgrims to 
flock from all parts of the globe to the tomb of our 
Saviour 

12. There was no crime that Catiline was not guilty 
of He ruined not only a great number of young men 
but attempted to ruin his country itself 



LESSON LX1II. 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF COMPOSITION.-ANALYSI3 
OF SUBJECTS. 
What is Composition ? 

Composition is the art of expressing one's thoughts 
by means ot written language. 



DIFFERENT KINDS OF COMPOSITION. 131 

What are the two great divisions under which all compositions 
may be classed ? 

Prose and Poetry. 

What compositions fall under the head of Prose ? 

All those in which a natural method of expres- 
sion and a natural order are employed, without 
reference to the recurrence of certain sounds, or 
any exact arrangement of syllables. 

What compositions fall under the head of Poetry ? 

All those in which there is a departure from the 
natural order, or mode of expression ; or in which 
there is a recurrence of certain sounds, or an exact 
arrangement of syllables. 

Which of these two great divisions shall we now proceed to 
consider ? 

Prose. 

What are the principal divisions under which the varieties of 
prose composition may be classed ? 

There are five leading divisions; viz., Letters, 
Descriptions, Narrations, Essays, and Argumenta- 
tive Discourses.* 

When a subject has been selected, no matter to which of these 
divisions your composition is to belong, what is the first thing to 
be done ? 

To reflect upon the various branches of the sub- 
ject, to think what can be said about it, and then 
proceed to its analysis. 

What is meant by the Analysis of a subject ? 

By the Analysis of a subject is meant the draw- 

* Note to the Teacher. — The author has deemed it inexpedient 
to present the formal divisions usually given by rhetoricians. He 
has selected such as are essential, and seem properly to fall within 
the province of an elementary work. 



132 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

ing out of the various heads under which it is in- 
tended to treat it. 

"Will the analysis of all subjects be the same ? 

No ; the heads will depend altogether on the 
subject. 

Suppose " Commerce " to be given you as your subject, how 
would you analyze it ? 

A proper analysis of " Commerce " would be as 
follows : — 

Commerce. 

I. Definition. (What is commerce ?) 
IL Origin. (Under this head state who were the 
first to engage in commerce ; the date ; what 
other nations soon followed in their steps.) 

LIT. History. (State how commerce was originally 
carried on ; describe the over-land trade be- 
tween Europe and the East Indies.) 

IV. Discoveries. (Describe the two important 
discoveries that were made near the close 
of the 15th century; viz., the discovery of 
America by Columbus, and that of a pas- 
sage to the Indies around the Cape of Good 
Hope. Mention their effects on the com- 
merce of the world.) 

V. Advantages. 

1. Equalizing the supply of the productions 
of the earth. 

2. Diffusing the blessings of education and 
civilization. 

3. Spreading the truths of Christianity. 
When you have a material object to describe, the analysis 

would be somewhat different. Take, for example, " Ships " for 
your subject, and analyze it. 



analysis of subjects. 133 

Ships. 
L Origin. (When and by whom were the first 

ships made ?) 
II. Appearance. (What was their original form, 
and what improvements have modern times 
made in them ?) 
ILL Objects for which they are used. 
IV. Inventions that have added to their useful- 
ness. (Particularly the mariners' compass, 
and its effects.) 
V. Effects that ships have produced on mankind. 
VI. Feelings excited by seeing a ship under full sail. 
What heads belong to almost every subject ? 

Such general heads as Origin, History, Object, 
Effects, &c. 

exercise. 

Copy the two analyses given above. 
Analyze the following subjects according to the 
directions and models that have been given, re- 
membering to ponder each subject carefully, and 
to give under each all the heads that you can 
think of : — 

I. A City. IV. Evening. 

II. Schools. V. Houses. 

IH. A Railroad. VI. Winter. 



LESSON LXIV. 

LETTER- WRITING-. 
What is the first division belonging to prose composition ? 

Letters. 



134 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

What makes this an important branch ? 

The necessity that exists for all persons, no mat- 
ter what their business may be, to write letters. 

On what subjects are letters most frequently composed ? 

On the ordinary topics of business or friendship. 

Is the form of the letter ever used for other subjects ? 

Yes, some writers have adopted the letter form 
in the composition of Philosophical Essays, Novels, 
Histories, &c. ; that is, they have published these 
productions, with an address to some friend, as if 
they had really passed as letters. 

Would compositions of this kind properly fall under the head 
of Letters ? 

No ; they should be classed under the division 
to which they really belong. 

What, then, are properly embraced under the head of Letter- 
Writing, or Epistolary Correspondence, as it is sometimes called ? 

Letters that are really intended for those to 
whom they are addressed. 

What is the principal requisite of a good letter ? 

A simple and concise style. There should be 
no attempt at display. 

What is to be avoided ? 

A tendency to diffuseness, proceeding from a 
fear that there may not be enough matter to fill 
the sheet. 

Before commencing your letter, what is it best to do ? 

To think over the various subjects on which it is 
intended to write, and draw out the heads on a 
separate piece of paper. In this way repetition 
will be avoided, and a proper arrangement insured. 

What rule is to be observed with regard to commencing a new 
paragraph, in either a letter or any other piece of composition ? 



LETTER-WRITING. 135 

Commence a new paragraph whenever it is ne- 
cessary to pass from one head of the letter or sub- 
ject to another. 

What is the best method of preserving neatness in a letter or 
other composition ? 

Draw two light pencil lines parallel with the 
left edge of the sheet, the first about half an inch, 
the second an inch, distant from it. Commence 
your composition, and each paragraph that fol- 
lows, on the second or inner line ; but carry out 
the body of the composition to the first or outer 
marginal line. When you have completed a page, 
erase the lines neatly with india-rubber.* 

Describe the date of a letter. 

A letter should always be dated. The date con- 
sists of the name of the place, the day of the month, 
and the year; thus, Charleston, January 1, 1869. 

Describe the address of a letter. 

In the first line of the address, give the name 
and title of the person to whom the letter is writ- 
ten. On the second line, address a gentleman 
as "Sir," "Dear Sir," or "My dear Sir"— a 
married lady as " Madam," " Dear Madam," or 
" My dear Madam " — according to the degree of 
intimacy. 

How is an unmarried lady best addressed ? 

In one line ; as, " My dear Miss ". 

How should a relative or friend be addressed ? 

* Note to the Teacher. — The teacher will find that the observ- 
ance of these directions will conduce much to the neatness of a 
composition. He is requested to explain them to the pupil, and 
is advised to insist on their being followed. 



136 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

A relative is properly addressed by the name that 
indicates the relationship ; as, " My dear Father," 
" My dear Aunt," " My dear Nephew". Or, a rela- 
tive or friend may be addressed by the Christian 
name, if intimacy will allow it ; as, " My dear Sa- 
rah," " My dear William ". 

Give the proper date and address of a letter to Mr. Henry 
Anderson. 

(ZOO &decdet St.. Q4f ^ 

(B/Centv Q/tnr/eiion, &ia. 
^Jeai Sfo, 

Describe the clause of respect at the close of a letter. 

There are various clauses of respect, appropriate 
to different letters, according to the relative posi- 
tions of the writer and the person addressed. A 
few of the most common are subjoined ; the pupil 
will at once see in what cases each is appropriate. 

Qs iematn, ?/iu c/eab c/t'i, 

ty/out /acm/ac *lie?icJ ana 
ovec/cent &elvant, 

f/sr,f/s c v/. Ou€en4*ne.+ 

* Note to the Pupil — Observe the punctuation of these signa- 



LETTER-WRITING. 137 

^vek'U ietAecteicwu ana tkuvu ucaU, 
Se. S£ V&teU. 

"eueve me, aeai mcMek, ad evek, 

ty/ouk a/ifectwnate aauadtei, 



ce£t afauied Mat yoa nave Me 
ueM wtdnet ex 

ty/cuk dcnceie Mcend, 

nfi£ Creaman ^tl&au. 



Copy according to these directions, and punctu- 
ate the letter given below, which is supposed to 
have been written from the following heads, by a 
young man on a voyage :— 

ANALYSIS. 

I. Acknowledgment of the reception of letters from home. 



tures. When the initial letter is used for a name, a period should 
be placed after it, to denote the abbreviation. A period should 
be placed after the surname also. 



138 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

II. Feelings after starting. 

III. Sea-sickness. 

IV. Storm. 

V. Arrival at Rio Janeiro. 

N. B. In letters of friendship, the first line of the address, 
containing the name and title, is generally omitted. 

Bio Janeiro, July 9t/i, 1868. 

My dear Father, 

You who have been such a traveller 
must know the pleasure afforded one that is separated 
from his family by the receipt of letters from home you 
may therefore imagine my delight on beholding the full 
budget which awaited my arrival here I had hardly 
ventured to hope for letters lest I might be disappointed 
for though we had tarried some time at Trinidad I was 
fearful that no other vessel would have arrived at Rio 
Janeiro before us My apprehensions however were soon 
put to flight by the reception of a most welcome package 
from which I was glad to see that I had not been for- 
gotten by any member of our little household 

While preparations were being made for my leaving 
home I looked forward to my proposed voyage with ar- 
dent anticipations of pleasure But when the moment 
for starting arrived and I was called upon to bid farewell 
to all that were nearest and dearest my heart was full of 
sorrow and I bitterly regretted that it had been thought 
best for me to go When the pilot-boat left us and your 
form my dear father gradually faded from my view I 
could no longer restrain my feelings but burst into a 
flood of tears The recollection of the friends and be- 
loved relatives that I had left behind me and of the 
possibility that I might never meet them again on 
earth overwhelmed me with sorrow 



LETTER-WRITING. 139 

How long these feelings might have continued I do 
not know but on the second day out a fresh breeze sprung 
up the sea became quite rough and my mind was called 
away from its gloomy reflections by a sudden fit of sea- 
sickness Much as I had read in travellers' note-books 
respecting this most disagreeable companion of a sea- 
voyage I did not realize a tithe of its discomfort until I 
became a victim of it myself For three days I lay in 
my berth without tasting food in a state of perfect in- 
difference to all that was going on around and heartily 
sorry that I had ever consented 

" to roam 
O'er the dark sea-foam " 

On the morning of our sixth day out I felt a little 
better and though my brain was so dizzy that I could 
hardly see and my limbs seemed almost unable to sup- 
port me I attempted to get up Not till then was I 
aware that we were in the midst of a terrible storm The 
vessel was plunging and the timbers were creaking as if 
every instant they must part while ever and anon above 
the howlings of the gale were heard the hoarse tones of 
the Captain shouting through his speaking-trumpet to 
the men Full of fear I managed to creep back into my 
berth and it was not until near evening I learned that 
for the past twenty-four hours we had experienced one 
of the heaviest gales ever known off Cape Hatteras 

The remainder of our voyage was not marked by any 
incident worthy of narration We arrived here this 
morning and I hasten to despatch this letter to relieve 
your anxiety There are as you may suppose many 
interesting objects in tins city these together with the 



140 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

beautiful bay and the surrounding country I shall at, 
tempt to describe in my next 

Remember me affectionately to each member of our 
family I shall write to them all at the next opportu- 
nity For yourself my dear father accept the best 
wishes and grateful love of 

Your affectionate son 

Jacob Perry, Jr. 



LESSON LXV. 

LETTER- WRITING. 
What is requisite in business letters ? 

Business letters should be as short as possible, 
and confined strictly to the subject in hand. 

Give an example of the proper form of address to a Firm. 

The following is an example of the proper form : 



(-(/.e}i{/e, 



c?nc?i, 



How should a letter be folded ? 

As envelopes are now generally used for enclos- 
ing letters, the most convenient way of folding is 
as follows : — As the sheet lies before you, turn up 
the bottom until its edge exactly lies upon the edge 
at the top, and make a fold in the middle. The 
sheet is now in an oblong form. Bring the side 
that is at your right hand toward your body, and 
fold over about one-third of the letter toward the 
top ; finally, turn as much of the upper part over 



LETTER-WRITING. 141 

in the opposite direction, and the sheet is properly 
folded for enclosing in an envelope.* 

What is meant by the superscription of a letter ? 

The direction on the outside, consisting of the 
name of the person addressed, the name of the 
place, and the state in which he lives. Thus : — 

In the superscription, what common error must be avoided ? 

The nse of two titles that imply the same thing. 
Thus, instead of directing to " Mr. William Wal- 
ton, Esq." we should direct either to " Mr. Wil- 
liam Walton," or to "William Walton, Esq." 

Correct the following direction : " Dr. James Purple, M. D." 



Write a letter according to the analysis given 
below. Follow the directions for dating, address- 
ing, folding, and superscribing ; above all, let your 
letter contain no bad spelling or incorrect punctu- 
ation. The pupil will imagine that he is writing 
from a boarding-school, in Salem, Massachusetts, 
to a sister at home, in JSTew York City. 



* Note. — As a practical illustration seems necessary, the 
teacher is requested to fold a sheet of letter-paper for the pupil 
according to these directions. 



142 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

ANALYSIS. 

L Acknowledge receipt of a letter from home, and 

state the feelings it awakened. 
LL Describe the weather, and state its effect on 

the spirits and amusements of the scholars. 
ILL Give an account of the daily routine of exer- 
cises in the school. 
IV. Describe the teacher. 

V. State when the next holiday occurs ; how it is 
anticipated by the scholars ; how they will 
spend it ; state your feelings with regard to 
your anticipated return home. 



LESSON LXVI. 

EXERCISE IN LETTER- WRITING. 

Write a letter from Poughkeepsie, N. Y., to 
your grandmother at Danbury, Conn., according 
to the following analysis. Date, &c, as directed. 
Do not use the words of the analysis, where it can 
be avoided. 

I. Express satisfaction at having heard, through 
your father, who has just returned from Dan- 
bury, that her health continues good ; hope 
that you may see her before long, so as to 
judge for yourself. 
LL Tell how Poughkeepsie is situated. Describe the 
Hudson River. Speak of the frequent com- 
munication with New York by means of the 
Hudson River Railroad, and the superior ad- 
vantages thus afforded for travel and trans- 



DESCRIPTION. 143 

portation, particularly when the river is 
frozen, &c. 

m. Give an account of the way in which you spend 
Sunday ; describe the place of worship which 
you attend. Describe your new clergyman. 
Tell what his text was last Sunday, and de- 
scribe his sermon. 

IV. Ask your grandmother to write to you often, 
and to state in her next letter when she will 
come to Poughkeepsie ; state how glad you 
will be to see her, and what amusements 
you have devised to interest her. 



LESSON LXYII. 

DESCRIPTION. 

What is the second division embraced under the head of prose 
composition ? 

Descriptions. 

In what does Description consist ? 

Description consists in noting down the charac- 
teristics or peculiarities of any particular object. 

To write a description, what is necessary ? 

For the writer to be familiar with what he is 
attempting to describe. 

Do descriptions admit of analysis ? 

Yes ; all subjects of composition do. 

Before commencing your description, then, what will it be best 
to do? 

To analyze the subject, according to the direc- 
tions already given.* 

* Note to the Teacher. — It will b« well for the teacher to insist 



144 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

What objects admit of description ? 

All objects that meet the eye. 

What are the three classes of objects that writers are most 
frequently called on to describe ? 

I. Material objects ; such as houses, ships, &c. 

II. Natural scenery. 

III. Persons. 

In describing the first of these classes, material objects, what 
heads will generally be found appropriate ? 

All of the following heads may not be appro- 
priate in each case, but a selection may be made 
of such as are : — 

I. The place where the object was seen ; the time 
when it was made, invented, or discovered ; its 
history. 
IL The purpose for which it was designed. 

III. The materials of which, and the persons by whom, 

it was made. 

IV. Its form, size, and general appearance. 

V. Compare it with any other object which it may 

resemble. 
VI. The effects it has produced. 
VLL The feelings excited by beholding it. 



Copy and punctuate the following description ; 
observe its characteristics carefully. Use capital 
letters where they are required. 

that an analysis be drawn up, in all cases, before the pupil pro- 
ceeds to his composition. Besides imparting precision to the 
mind, this practice will insure a proper arrangement in the com- 
position. 



DESCRIPTION. 145 

The geeat clock of steasburg. 

There is no subject that i can think of which will be 
so likely to interest you as the great astronomical clock 
which i saw the other day in the cathedral at strasburg. 
this cathedral by the way is one of the finest and oldest 
in europe. it is twenty-four feet higher than the great 
pyramid in egypt and one hundred and forty feet higher 
than st pauls in london. the astronomical clock stands 
in the inside in one corner of it and is a most imposing 
and beautiful edifice, five or six hundred people visit it 
every day at twelve o'clock when it performs some ex- 
traordinary feats which I shall presently mention 

There have been two or three clocks in the same 
place upon the model of which the present one is formed 
but it is almost a new one. it was constructed in 1838 
by a mechanic named schwilque to whom a festival was 
given by his fellow-citizens on the occasion of its com- 
pletion 

To give you some idea of the size of this clock i will 
inform you that it is as high and about as wide as the 
old state-house in Washington street boston there are 
means of going into the inside of it and ten or fifteen 
people perhaps more may stand in its very heart and ex- 
amine the machinery mi* neale two other gentlemen and 
myself with the conductor went into it and spent about 
an hour there we went first into a lower then into a 
higher and then into a still higher apartment of it and saw 
the various parts of the machinery they consisted i should 
think of more than a thousand pieces splendidly polished 
and all dependent for their harmonious action upon the 
short thick brass pendulum which swings in the centre 

This clock points out not only the hours and the 



146 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

days but the times and the seasons the revolutions of 
the stars the solar and lunar equations the conjunctions 
and eclipses of the heavenly bodies their positions at 
any given time and the various changes through which 
they pass for thousands of years it points out appan -ni 
time mean or real time and ecclesiastical time on its 
face you see the motions of the stars of the sun and 
planets of the moon and her satellites two little cherubs 
who sit the one on one side the other on the other 
strike the quarters of the hour death strikes the hour 
with a mace while four figures pass and repass before 
him representing the various stages of human life 

Every day when death strikes twelve the apostles 
who are represented each with the sign of Ins maiiyr- 
dom come out from the clock and pass before an image 
of the saviour bowing as they pass and receiving his 
benediction which he gives with a movement of the 
head when the apostle peter makes his appearance a 
gilded cock which is perched on one side of the clock 
flaps his wings raises his head and crows so long and 
so loud as to make the wmole cathedral ring again this 
he repeats three times in memorial of the cock that 
crowed three times before the fall of Peter during the 
crucifixion of our saviour of course the cock makes 
no further noise or motion till the next day at twelve 
o'clock when he repeats the same loud and startling 
crow flapping his wings and raising his head 

Now i dare say you will all exclaim what a wonder- 
ful clock what a wonderful man must he be that made 
it but let us remember how much more wonderful are 
the mechanism of the universe and the god who made 
it how wonderful that being who made us and all man- 
kind and keeps the whole universe going and every 



DESCRIPTION. 147 

heart beating from day to day and from year to year 
" Lo these are but a part of his ways but the thunder 
of his power who can understand " 



LESSON LXVIII. 

DESCRIPTION. 

Write a description of A Ship according to 
the analysis given on page 133, omitting the third 
and fourth heads entirely, and enlarging on the 
second and sixth. 



LESSON LXIX. 

DESCRIPTION OF NATTJRAD SCENERY. 

In describing natural scenery, what heads is it best to take ? 

Selections may be made from the following : — 

L The circumstances under which it was seen; 

whether at sunrise, at noon, or by moonlight ; 

the effect, &e. 

IL The natural features of the scene ; whether level 

or undulating ; whether fertile or barren, &c. 

ITT. The improvements made by man ; whether well 

cultivated ; whether any buildings are in 

sight ; if so, describe them. 

IV. The figures in the scene ; if any human beings, 

describe them. 
V. The neighboring inhabitants ; their character, pe- 
culiarities, &c. 



148 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

VI. The sounds that meet the ear ; as, the murmur of 
a stream, the noise of a waterfall, the rustling 
of the leaves under the influence of the wind, 
the lowing of cattle, the barking of dogs, the 
singing of birds, the cries of children; the 
somids of industry, such as the noise of ma- 
chinery, &c. 
VLT. The distant prospect. 

VILT. A comparison with any other scene which it may 
resemble. 
IX The historical associations connected with the 

scene. 
X. The feelings which the view awakened in the 
mind. 

Is it necessary for these heads to be considered in the order 
given above ? 

No; they may be taken in any order that may 
suit the convenience of the writer. 



Copy and punctuate the following description 
written by Sir Walter Scott. Observe its charac- 
teristics. Use capitals where they are required. 

An ancient Yorkshire forest scene. 

" in that pleasant district of merry england which is 
watered by the river don there extended in ancient times 
a large forest covering the greater part of the beautiful 
hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the 
pleasant town of doncaster. the remains of this exten- 
sive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of went- 
worth of wharncliffe park and around rotherham. here 



DESCRIPTION. 149 

haunted of yore the fabulous dragon of wantley here 
were fought many of the most desperate battles during 
the civil wars of the roses and here also nourished in 
ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws whose deeds 
have been rendered so popular in english song. * * * * 
the sun was setting upon one of the rich grassy glades 
of the forest that has been mentioned, hundreds of 
broad-headed short-stemmed wide-branched oaks which 
had witnessed perhaps the stately march of the roman 
soldiery flung their gnarled arms over a thick carpet of 
the most delicious greensward in some places they were 
intermingled with beeches hollies and copsewood of va- 
rious descriptions so closely as totally to intercept the 
level beams of the sinking sun in others they receded 
from each other forming those long sweeping vistas in 
the intricacy of which the eye delights to lose itself while 
imagination considers them as the paths to yet wilder 
scenes of sylvan solitude, here the red rays of the sun 
shot a broken and discolored light that partially hung 
upon the shattered boughs and mossy trunks of the trees 
and there they illuminated in brilliant patches the por- 
tions of turf to which they made their way. a consider- 
able open space in the midst of this glade seemed for- 
merly to have been dedicated to the rites of druidical 
superstition for on the summit of a hillock so regular as 
to seem artificial there still remained part of a circle of 
rough unhewn stones of large dimensions, seven stood 
upright the rest had been dislodged from their places 
probably by the zeal of some convert to Christianity and 
lay some prostrate near their former site and others on 
the side of the hill, one large stone only had found its 
way to the bottom and in stopping the course of a small 
brook which glided smoothly round the foot of the emi- 



150 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

nence gave by its opposition a feeble voice of murmur 
to the placid and elsewhere silent streamlet. 

the human figures which completed this landscape 
were in number two partaking in their dress and ap- 
pearance of that wild and rustic character which be- 
longed to the woodlands of the west riding of yorksliire 
at that early period." 

(Here follows a description of the persons.) 



LESSON LXX. 

EXERCISE IN DESCRIPTION. 

Write a description of the " Scene from Fort 
Lee Bluff," according to the hints in the following 
analysis. Do not use the words of the book, but 
express the thoughts in your own language. 

I. Alone; sunrise; appearance of the sun as it 

gradually emerges above the eastern horizon. 
LI. Eye rests first on the Hudson flowing at the base 
of the bluff ; effect of water on a landscape. On 
the opposite side, a fine country, hill and valley, 
studded with villages. 
III. While in the distance many evidences of cultiva- 
tion meet the eye of one looking eastward, on 
the west is an unbroken forest, not even an oc- 
casional house ; one might suppose that he weiKB 
in a wilderness far from civilization, were it not 
for one evidence of human industry and ingenu- 
ity, a high post for the telegraph wire, which 
here crosses the river. Remarks on this great 
enterprise. 



DESCRIPTION. 151 

IV. No person in view ; sloops with white sails look 

like large birds. 
V. While the eye is thus pleased, the ear is no less 
delighted; describe some of the sounds that 
usually meet the ear in the country on a sum- 
mer morning. 

VI. Feelings awakened ; contrast with the excite- 
ment of a city life ; the grandeur and beauty of 
the scene lead the mind to the Creator, and a 
thanksgiving goes up to him from the heart — 
(for what?) 



LESSON LXXI. 

DESCRIPTION OF PERSONS. 

In what varieties of composition is the writer most frequently 
called on to describe persons ? 

In biographical sketches, travels, history, and 
novels. 

In describing persons, what heads is it best to take ? 

A selection may be made from the following : — 
I. Person ; whether tall or short, fleshy or thin. 
II. Dress. 

III. Face; features; expression. 

IV. Manners ; whether dignified, graceful, awkward, 

active, indolent, haughty, or affable. 
V. Any peculiarity of appearance. 



Copy and punctuate the following description 
of " Leather-stocking, " extracted from one of 
Cooper's novels : — 



152 first lessons ln composition. 

Leather-stocking. 

" There was a peculiarity in the manner of the hunter 
that struck the notice of the young female who had been 
a close and interested observer of his appearance and 
equipments from the moment he first came into view 
He was tall and so meagre as to make him seem above 
even the six feet that he actually stood in his stockings 
On his head which was thinly covered with lank sandy 
hair he wore a cap made of fox-skin His face was skinny 
and thin almost to emaciation but yet bore no signs of 
disease on the contrary it had every indication of the 
most robust and enduring health The cold and the ex- 
posure had together given it a color of uniform red his 
gray eyes were glancing under a pair of shaggy brows 
that overhung them in long hairs of gray mingled with 
their natural hue his scraggy neck was bare and burnt 
to the same tint with his face though a small part of a 
shirt-collar made of the country check was to be seen 
above the over-dress he wore A kind of coat made of 
dressed deer-skin with the hair on was belted close to his 
lank body by a girdle of colored worsted On his feet 
were deer-skin moccasins ornamented with porcupines' 
quills after the manner of the Indians and his limbs 
were guarded with long leggings of the same material as 
the moccasins which gartering over the knees of his tar- 
nished buck-skin breeches had obtained for him among 
the settlers the nick-name of Leather-stocking notwith- 
standing his legs were protected beneatli in winter by 
thick garments of woollen duly made of good blue yarn 
Over his left shoulder was slung a belt of deer-skin from 
which depended an enormous ox-horn so thinly scraped 
as to discover the dark powder that it contained The 



NARRATION, 153 

larger end was fitted ingeniously and securely with a 
wooden bottom and the other was stopped tight by a 
little plug A leathern pouch hung before him from 
which as he concluded his last speech he took a small 
measure and filling it accurately with powder he com- 
menced reloading the rifle which as its butt rested on 
the snow before him reached nearly to the top of his 
fox-skin cap " 



LESSON LXXII. 

EXERCISES IN DESCRIPTION. 

White descriptions of 

A Railroad. 
The Country in Summer. 

[N. B. The pupil is expected in every case to prepare an 
analysis of his subject, before he proceeds to the composition it- 
self. This will not, therefore, be repeated in the directions. If he 
meets with difficulty in drawing out his analyses, it will be well 
for him to review Lesson LXIII., which treats of that subject.] 



LESSON LXXIII. 

NARRATION. 

What is the third division embraced under the head of prose 
composition ? 

Narrations. 

In what does Narration consist ? 

In giving a detailed account of incidents which 



154 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

have taken place, or which the writer imagines to 
have taken place. 

When the incidents have no foundation in fact, but are created 
by the imagination of the writer, what is the composition called '? 

Fiction. 

What are the principal divisions embraced under the general 
head of fiction ? 

Tales, ISTovels, and Romances. 

When confined to fact, what are the principal divisions em- 
braced under the head of narration ? 

I. History ; or, an account of general incidents. 
II. Biography; or, an account of incidents in 
the lives of individuals. 
III. Travels and Voyages ; or, accounts of inci- 
dents that have happened to persons while 
away from home, or while traversing the 
ocean. 

In narration, must we confine ourselves strictly to an account 
of the incidents ? 

No ; we may with advantage introduce descrip- 
tions of scenes, and of the persons concerned. 

In narration, what is particularly necessary ? 

That the sentences he clear, and the connection 
between the parts he properly maintained. 



Copy and punctuate the following specimen of 
historical narration, which is based on the Scrip- 
tural account of Belshazzar's Feast in the 5th 
chapter of the hook of Daniel. The pupil is re- 
quested to turn to this chapter ; he will find that 



NARRATION. 155 

the language used in the extract below is entirely 
different from that of the Bible. From this he 
will understand what is meant, when, in following 
an outline given in the book, he is directed to use 
his own language. 

Belshazzar's Feast 

" It was night but the usual stillness of that hour was 
broken by the sounds of feasting and revelry It had 
been a festival day in Babylon and the inhabitants had 
not yet sunk into repose The song and the dance still 
continued and the voice of music was heard All seemed 
in perfect security and no precautions had been taken 
to avoid the danger which hung over their devoted 
heads An invading army was even then surrounding 
the walls of the city but those who ought to have de- 
fended it confident and secure left it unguarded and ex- 
posed to the attacks of the enemy Fear was excluded 
even from the walls of the palace and the monarch was 
giving his own example of rioting and mirth to his 
subjects A thousand of the noblest lords in his king- 
dom were feasting with him as his invited guests They 
had { already tarried long at the wine ' when Belshaz- 
zar in the pride and impiety of his heart commanded 
the servants to bring the silver and golden vessels 
which had been taken by his grandfather Nebuchad- 
nezzar from the temple at Jerusalem They were 
brought and filled with wine and as they drank it they 
extolled their gods of wood and of stone 

But while they were thus sacrilegiously employed 
their mirth was suddenly changed into amazement and 
consternation A hand like that of a man was seen to 



156 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

write upon the wall of the palace and as they gazed 
upon it it traced the sentence * Mene, Mene, Tekel, 
Upharsin ' No one among the vast company under- 
stood its meaning but to their affrighted imagination it 
was full of portentous import The king who was ex- 
ceedingly terrified sent in haste for all the astrologers 
and those persons in whose powers of divination he 
had been accustomed to place confidence but none 
could explain the mysterious warning 

At this juncture the queen entered and informed the 
king that Daniel was in the city and that he was sup- 
posed to possess the wisdom of the gods He was 
hastily summoned into the royal presence and after re- 
proving the trembling monarch for the pride which he 
had manifested revealed to him the doom which was 
pronounced upon him He told him that his kingdom 
and his own life were nearly at a close that his empire 
should be divided between the Medes and Persians 
and also that his own character had been examined and 
found lamentably deficient 

The reward which had been promised was now be- 
stowed upon Daniel He was arrayed in a kingly robe 
adorned with a golden chain and proclaimed the third 
in authority in the kingdom Ere the next rising sun 
Belshazzar was numbered with the dead " 



LESSON LXXIV. 

EXERCISE IN HISTORICAL NARRATION. 

Write in your own language an account of " The 
Casting of Daniel into the Den of Lions," from the 



HISTOKICAE NAERATIQI*. 157 

facts recorded in the 6th chapter of the book of 
Daniel. Attach to it such reflections on the pres- 
ervation of Daniel, and the destruction of his 
wicked enemies, as suggest themselves to jour 
mind. 



LESSON LXXY. 

EXERCISE IN HISTORICAL NARRATION. 

Write in your own language an extended ac- 
count of the incidents described in the following 
outlines. In doing this you may have occasion to 
follow the directions given in Lessons XLIIL, 
XLIY., XLV., XLYL, and LII. 

Roma^ Virtue. 

Pyrrhus was king of Epirus. The Samnites were at 
war with Rome ; they invited Pyrrhus to help them. 
He accepted their invitation. The physician of Pyrrhus 
was a bad man ; he told the Romans that, for a large 
reward, he would poison his master. Fabricius was the 
Roman general; he was an honorable man; he was 
shocked at the physician's treachery, and sent the traitor 
away with scorn, saying, "We should be honorable 
even to our enemies." Pyrrhus heard of this ; he would 
not be outdone in generosity ; he sent his prisoners to 
Rome without ransom, and consented to negotiate a 
peace. 

[Close with reflections on the baseness of such treachery, and 
the policy of always pursuing an honorable course, as the Romans 
did on this occasion.] 



158 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

The Disobedient Captain. 

Frederick II., the Great, king of Prussia, was a fa- 
mous warrior ; remarkable for strict discipline. In one 
of his campaigns he intended, during the night, to 
make an important movement; gave orders that every 
light in the camp should be put out at eight o'clock, on 
pain of death. At that hour he went out himself, to 
see if the order was obeyed. Saw one light ; in the 
tent of Captain Zietern; king entered; Zietern was 
folding a letter. Zietern was dismayed at beholding 
the king ; threw himself on his knees and implored par- 
don ; said he was writing to his wife, and had retained the 
candle to finish his letter. The king told him to go on, 
and write one line more which he would dictate to him ; 
that line was to inform his wife that by sunrise the 
next day he would be a dead man. The letter was 
sent ; at the appointed time Zietern was executed. 

[Close with reflections on the necessity and policy of obe- 
dience.] 



LESSON LXXVI. 
BIOGRAPHICAL sketches. 

What is a Biographical Sketch ? 

A Biographical Sketch is a narration of the 
principal events in the life of an individual. 

What is it proper to include in a biographical sketch ? 

A description of the person under consideration, 
according to the heads given in Lesson LXXI. 

What other particulars are to be considered in a biographical 
sketch ? 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 159 

I. Birth, condition in life, vocation. 
II. Character, disposition. 

III. Mental abilities, leading characteristics of 

mind. 

IV. Successive events, beginning at the earliest 

period of life. 
Y. His peculiarities, or what rendered him fa- 
mous. 

How do biographical sketches rank among other pieces of 
composition ? 

They are among the most interesting and useful. 

What renders them useful ? 

They are useful, because the lives of the most 
distinguished men teach us that a course of up- 
rightness and industry secures the respect of the 
world, and that idleness and vice bring their vota- 
ries to suffering and disgrace. 

What length is proper for biographical sketches ? 

They may be of any length. Some men's lives 
are so eventful as to furnish sufficient matter for 
volumes. When brevity is required, only a few 
of the leading facts may be presented, and the 
whole may be so abridged as to occupy but a few 
pages, or even a single page. 



Copy and punctuate the following specimen of 
a biographical sketch : — 

Mahomet. 

"Mahomet was born at Mecca in 569 a d The 
tribe from which he descended was that of the Korash- 



160 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

ites and the most noble in Arabia His immediate an- 
cestors seem however to have been undistinguished and 
though his natural talents were great it is certain that 
his education was inconsiderable He acquired knowl- 
edge but not from books Intercourse with mankind 
had sharpened his faculties and given him an insight 
into the human heart 

In 609 when he was about 40 years old he began to 
concert a system of measures the issue of which was the 
establishment of a new religion in the world and of an 
empire which spreading over many countries lasted 
more than six centuries The religion still remains 

His impostures were not at first well received The 
citizens of Mecca even opposed them Forsaking liis na- 
tive city where his life was in jeopardy he fled to Medina 
at the epoch called by the Mahometans the hegira or 
flight which was in the year 622 By the aid of his dis- 
ciples at Medina he returned to Mecca as a conqueror 
and making numerous proselytes he soon became master 
of Arabia and Syria and was saluted as king in 627 

The main arguments which Mahomet employed to 
persuade men to embrace his religion were promises and 
threats which he knew would easily work on the minds 
of the multitude His promises related chiefly to Para- 
dise and to the sensual delights to be enjoyed in that 
region of pure waters shady groves and exquisite fruits 
Such a heaven had strong charms for the Arabians whose 
burning climate made them regard images of this sort 
with excessive pleasure His threats on the other hand 
were peculiarly terrific to this people Those who re- 
jected his religion were in the next world to drink nothing 
but putrid and boiling water to breathe nothing but ex- 
ceedingly hot winds they were to dwell for ever in con- 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 161 

tinual fire intensely burning and be surrounded with a 
black hot salt smoke as with a coverlet 

Mahomet was distinguished for the beauty of his 
person he had a commanding presence a majestic aspect 
piercing eyes a flowing beard and his whole countenance 
depicted the strong emotions of his mind His memory 
was retentive his wit easy and his judgment clear and 
decisive In his intercourse with society he observed 
the forms of that grave and ceremonious politeness so 
common in his country 

Mahomet persisted in his fanaticism to the last On 
his death-bed he asserted that the angel of death was 
not allowed to take his soul till he had respectfully 
asked the permission of the prophet The request be- 
ing granted Mahomet fell into the agony of dissolution 
he fainted with the violence of pain but recovering his 
spirits in a degree he raised his eyes upward and look- 
ing steadfastly said with a faltering voice O God par- 
don my sins Yes I come among my fellow-citizens on 
high and in this manner expired " 



LESSON LXXVII. 

EXERCISE IN BIOGRAPHICAL NARRATION. 

Write, in your own language, a biographical 
sketch of Newton, from the facts furnished below. 
You may adopt whatever arrangement is most 
convenient. 

Sir Isaac Newton. 

The most illustrious philosopher and mathematician 
that ever lived. Born, 1642, at Woolsthorpe, Lincoln- 



162 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

shire, England. Lost his father when very young ; his 
mother took great care of his early education. At 18, 
entered Trinity College, Cambridge ; here he devoted 
himself to mathematics ; displayed great ability in the 
various branches of that science. At 22, discovered the 
method of fluxions, winch, however, he afterward greatly 
simplified and improved. Next, made important im- 
provements in telescopes, by the grinding of optical 
glasses. Next, began to investigate the prism, and put 
forth a new theory respecting light and colors. His 
next discovery startled the whole world — this was the 
principle of gravitation. He was led to this by seeing 
an apple fall, while he was reclining under a tree in an 
orchard ; his inquiring mind at once set about investi- 
gating the cause. His great work entitled " Principia " 
was published in 1687 ; this added much to his reputa- 
tion, and procured him the respect of the learned and 
scientific of all countries. The friendship of Lord Hali- 
fax obtained for him the lucrative situation of master 
of the mint. 

At 80, he became affected with a painful disease, 
which, five years later, proved fatal. Suffered great 
agony during the last five weeks of his life ; bore it 
patiently; even smiled, while the paroxysms caused 
large drops of sweat to roll down his cheeks. 

Newton was amiable ; a Christian ; studied the Bible 
much. Always rebuked irreverence. He was of mid- 
dling height; his countenance, venerable and pleasant. 
His power of mind is universally admitted. A great 
writer has said that, if the learned men of all ages 
could meet in one assembly, they would choose Sir 
Isaac Newton for their president. 



FICTION. • 163 

LESSON LXXVIII. 



What is Fiction ? 

Fiction is a species of composition in which 
events are narrated that have no foundation ex- 
cept in the imagination of the writer. 

What make fiction interesting ? 

Striking scenes and novel combinations of 
events. 

Repeat the three divisions that are embraced under the head 
of fiction. 

Tales, novels, and romances. 

What is the difference between a tale and a novel ? 

A novel is longer than a tale. 

What is the difference between a novel and a romance ? 

A novel is founded on events that resemble 
those of real life ; while a romance is a narration 
of wilder and more unnatural incidents. 

In fiction, what other species of composition may be intro- 
duced with advantage ? 

Description and historical narration. 

EXERCISE. 

An extract illustrative of fiction is unnecessary, as the pupil 
will recognize specimens of it in the various stories and fairy-tales 
which he has read. 

Imagine that you had an encounter with ban- 
ditti, while travelling in Italy, and write an ac- 
count of it according to the following hints : — 

The Bandit of the Apennines. 
Describe the scene ; pass in tho Apennines ; night ; 



164 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

moon struggling with clouds. I was travelling in a 
large comfortable carriage ; cold ; sleepy. 

Suddenly carriage stopped. Voices ; oaths ; traces 
cut ; door opened ; ferocious fellow masked ; presented 
pistol ; demanded money. Felt for pistols ; not in their 
place ; must have been removed by postilion ; in league 
with the banditti. Had to give up money and jewels. 

One ring had been given me by my mother ; prized 
it much ; asked the leader to let me retain it ; he 
handed it to me with a polite bow, so much like the 
courteous salutation of the inn-keeper at the last stop- 
ping-place, that I could not help fancying that they 
were one and the same man. 

Stripped me of all they could get ; tied me to a 
tree ; shouted ; did no good. Was obliged to stay 
there till morning; a Count passed by with a large 
retinue of servants. Released me. 

Six months after this was in Florence. There was 
to be a public execution. I happened to be out, and 
met the procession that was conducting the criminal to 
the gallows. They told me that he was one of the 
most daring bandits of the Apennines. Our eyes met ; 
with imperturbable politeness he rose in the car, all 
manacled as he was, and made me that same bow to 
which I could have sworn among a thousand. It was 
no other than my host of the mountain-inn, and my 
polite friend of the mountain-pass. It was his last 
bow; in less than an hour his body was dangling from 
the gallows. 



ESSAYS. 165 

LESSON LXXIX. 



What is the third division embraced under the head of prose 
composition ? 

Essays. 

What is an Essay ? 

An Essay is a composition, generally on some 
abstract subject, devoted rather to an investigation 
of causes, effects, &c, than to an examination of 
visible and material peculiarities. 

May essays ever contain description or narration ? 

Yes ; brief descriptions and narrations may be 
introduced into essays with advantage. 

In essays, what heads is it proper to take ? 

Almost any that occur to the mind. 

What name has been given to essays that treat of the princi- 
ples of art, science, or moral truth ? 

Philosophical Essays. 



Write an essay on Commeece according to the 
analysis given on page 132. It will be seen that 
the second, third, and fourth heads will introduce 
some historical narration ; but this is not objection- 
able. • 



LESSON LXXX. 

Write an essay on Friendship, according to the 
following analysis : — 



166 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

Friendship. 
L Defection. (What is friendship ?) 
II. Origin. (Friendship took its rise in the social feel- 
ings implanted in the breast of man.) 

III. Antiquity. (Existed in the earliest times ; much 

regarded by the ancients; Cicero composed a 
volume on it.) 

IV. Instances. (David and Jonathan; Damon and 

Pythias ; &c. You may briefly relate the story 
of Damon and Pythias, if you are familiar with 

it.) 

V. Necessity. (What would be the state of society 

without friendship ?) 
VL Effects. 



LESSON LXXXI. 

ARGUMENTATIVE DISCOURSES. 

What is the fifth division embraced under the head of prose 
composition ? 

Argumentative Discourses. 

What is an Argumentative Discourse ? 

An Argumentative Discourse is a composition 
in which the writer lays down a proposition, and 
attempts to persuade others that it is true. 

What are the facts and reasons which a writer brings forward 
to sustain his position, called ? 

Arguments. 

What are argumentative discourses called, when delivered be- 
fore popular assemblies ? 

When on sacred subjects, they are called Ser- 



ARGUMENTATIVE DISCOURSES. 167 

mons ; when on other subjects, Speeches or Ora- 
tions. 

In the orations and argumentative discourses of the ancients, 
what formal divisions were adopted ? 

Six regular divisions were adopted, viz. : — 
I. The Exordium, or Introduction ; in which 
the speaker strove to make his hearers at- 
tentive, and disposed to receive his argu- 
ments. 
II. The Division, in which the speaker stated 
the plan he intended to pursue in treating 
the subject. 
III. The Statement, in which the subject and 
the facts connected with it, were laid open. 
IY. The Reasoning, in which the arguments 
were set forth in order, the weakest being 
generally in the middle, and in which the 
reasoning of opponents was refuted. 
Y. The Appeal to the Feelings, one of the most 
important divisions of the discourse. 
YI. The Peroration, in which the speaker sum- 
med up all that had been said, and brought 
his discourse to a close. 

Is it customary to adopt this arrangement and division in dis- 
courses at the present day ? 

It is with some speakers; but others use less 
formal divisions. There are many excellent dis- 
courses, in which several of these parts are alto- 
gether wanting. 

EXERCISE. 

Copy and punctuate the following specimen of 



168 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

a short argumentative discourse. It will be seen 
that the regular division is not strictly adhered to. 

Happiness is not always the Reward op Virtue 
In contemplating the maxims of the ancient Stoic 
philosophers we can not help being struck with the 
soundness of their principles and the stern requirements 
of their moral code Yet there is one of their proposi- 
tions to which we can not yield assent and that is that 
temporal happiness is the necessary consequence of 
virtue So important a question one on which so many 
issues and those the practical issues of life are staked 
is well worthy of discussion 

In treating the question it is well understood that 
prejudices will have to be combated and removed for 
there are many who without having looked closely at 
the subject have followed the ancient Stoics and be- 
cause it is a convenient creed to teach and one which it is 
believed will lead to the practice of virtue have sought 
to inculcate this selfish principle A regard for virtue 
should be instilled by higher arguments than this vir- 
tue should be practised because it is a duty because it 
is the command of God 

In the first place' I lay down the proposition that 
there is no necessary connection between virtue and 
happiness To the ancients who knew not that the 
soul was immortal it may have seemed necessary that 
the patient self-denial the forgiving charity and the ac- 
tive benevolence of virtue should be rewarded in this 
world but we who live in the light of a revelation from 
on high know that there is a hereafter and look to that 
infinite cycle of ages not to this finite state of probation 
for that degree of reward which virtue may procure 



ARGUMENTATIVE DISCOURSES. 169 

But again no one can deny that it is an important 
principle of our religious system that the virtuous and 
the pious should be put to the trial and that afflictions 
and crosses are sent by the Omnipotent to test the 
stability of their faith and practice As Job a man that 
" feared God and eschewed evil " was tried by visita- 
tions from on high so have the good of all ages been 
obliged to submit to similar probation Viewed in this 
light it would seem that trial is peculiarly in this world 
the lot of virtue the necessary preparation to be made 
in time by those who would enjoy a blissful eternity 

But those who with the poet believe that 

" Virtue alone is happiness below " 

point us to the pleasures of a quiet conscience and the 
peace which a knowledge of the performance of duty 
brings with it It is admitted that these are great 
blessings and that without them happiness can not ex- 
ist but are they alone sufficient to make a man happy 
Can the quietest conscience in the universe remove the 
pangs of hunger alleviate the sufferings of the sick or 
comfort the mourner The experience of the world will 
answer no There are many Jobs there are many good 
but unhappy men 

To go a step further to say what is necessary to in- 
sure happiness to point to religion the hope of that 
which is to come as an anchor to which the soul may 
cling " amid a sea of trouble " would be foreign to the 
question In view of the arguments we have advanced 
in view of the striking argument furnished by our own 
experience we think we may fairly conclude that 

11 Virtue alone is " not " happiness below " 
8 



170 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

LESSON LXXXII. 

FIGURES-SIMILE. 

[The pupil is now familiar with the principal kinds of compo- 
sition. All that remains to complete the course, is a few lessons 
on the principal figures.] 

When we say, " Saladin was a fox in the council, a lion in tlu 
Jield" do we mean that he actually became at one time a fox, and 
at another a lion ? 

ISTo ; we mean that he was cunning in laying 
plans, and bold in executing them. 

When language is used in this way to represent, not the idea 
which the words really express, but some thought that is analogous 
or has some resemblance to them, how is it said to be used ? 

Figuratively. 

What are the principal figures ? 

Simile, Metaphor, and Personification. 

What is Simile ? 

Simile is a figure by which we liken one thing 
to another. 

Give an example. 

" Good nature ^ like the sun, sheds a light on all 
around" 

In making similes, what must we observe ? 

That the objects compared have a resemblance. 

What words are used to introduce similes ? 

Like and as. 

For what two purposes are similes used ? 

Similes are used, 
I. For illustrating or explaining the meaning ; 

such similes are called explaining similes. 
II. For embellishing the style ; they are then 

called embellishing similes. 



FIGUKES. SIMILE. 171 

What rules are to be observed in using similes ? 

I. Objects that are little known should be com- 
pared to things that are better known. 
II. Objects should be likened to other objects 
which possess the quality in which they 
resemble each other in a higher degree 
than themselves. Thus, in the sentence, 
" The moon is like a jewel in the sky" 
the simile is bad, because the moon sheds 
more light than a jewel, and should not 
be compared to it. 

EXEKCISE. 

Complete the following sentences by introducing 
a simile wherever a dash occurs. Remember that 
similes are introduced by the words like and as. 

Example. Temptations, , beset him on every 

side. 

Completed. Temptations, like so many snares, be- 
set him on every side. 

1. He who is a traitor to his country is which 

turns to bite the bosom that warms it. 

2. Richelieu upheld the state which supports 

the weight of a whole edifice. 

3. Anger consumes the heart. 

4. Her eyes shed a mild radiance on all around. 

5. Her brow was fair, 

Her cheeks red. 

6. Satan goes about , seeking whom he may 

devour. 

7. A virtuous man slandered by his enemies, is 
like . 



172 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

8. She was as unsuspicious which " licks tha 

hand just raised to shed its blood." 

9. She mourns which has lost its mate. 

10. Sorrow shades the soul, as a cloud . 

11. He is as firm which rears its head unmoved 

above the billows. 

12. Man is which to-day springe th up and 

bloometh, and to-morrow withereth away. 

13. Shakspeare tells us that Desdemona's skin was 
as white as , and as smooth . 

14. He stood silent and motionless . 



LESSON LXXXIII. 

METAPHOR. 

"What is the most common figure ? 

Metaphor. 

What is Metaphor ? 

Metaphor is a comparison in which the words 
denoting the similitude are omitted ; as, " Good 
nature is a sun which sheds light on all around" 

How may a simile be converted into a metaphor ? 

By omitting the word like or as, and slightly 
altering the construction of the sentence, as may 
be required by this omission. 

Give an example. 

" Vice, like a /Siren, sings her songs in the ears 
of youth; " here we have a simile. By omitting 
like, and slightly altering the sentence, we convert 
the simile into a metaphor ; thus, " Vice is a Siren 
that sings her songs in tJie ears of youth." 



METAPHOR. 173 

What is essential to the effect of a metaphor ? 

That the resemblance between the objects com- 
pared should be evident. 

Is it well to crowd a number of metaphors together into a 
small compass ? 

It is not ; they lose their effect, when used in 
too great abundance. 

What is the most important rule relating to the use of -meta- 
phors ? 

Always carry out the figure ; that is, after hav- 
ing introduced a metaphor, do not in the same sen- 
tence return to the use of plain language. 

Give an example in which this rule is violated. 

Pope, in his translation of Homer's Odyssey, 
makes Penelope, when speaking of her son, say, 

" Now from my fond embrace by tempests torn, 
Our other column of the state is borne, 
Nor took a kind adieu, nor sought consent." . 

In the second line she calls her son a " column of 
the state" and in the third speaks of his taking a 
kind adieu, and seeking consent. • Now, as columns 
are not in the habit of taking kind adieus or seek- 
ing consent, there is an inconsistency, and the meta- 
phor is faulty. The poet should either not have lik- 
ened him to a column, or else should have assigned 
to him no action that a column can not perform. 

How may such metaphors be corrected ? 

By assigning to the leading object an action not 
incompatible with the object to which it is com- 
pared. 

Give an example. 

"A torrent of superstition consumed the land; " 



174 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

here the metaphor is faulty because torrents do not 
consume. We correct it by assigning to tl>e lead- 
ing object an action not incompatible with the 
nature of torrents ; thus, "A torrent of superstition 
flowed over the land." 

What other rule must be observed with regard to metaphors ? 

They must be appropriate. 

Give an example of an inappropriate metaphor. 

The clergyman who prayed that ' God would be 
a rock to them that are afar off upon the sea,' used 
a very inappropriate metaphor, because, as rocks 
in the sea are a source of great danger to mariners, 
he was in reality asking for the destruction of those 
for whose safety he intended to pray. 



1. Complete and alter sentences 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 
and 7, in the Exercise at the close of the last Les- 
son, so that they may contain metaphors instead of 
similes. Hemember that, in a metaphor, the com- 
parison is not introduced by the word like or as. 

2. Complete the following sentences so that they 
may contain metaphors : — 

Example. The cares of riches are Avitli 

which we bind ourselves to earth. 

Completed. The cares of riches arc golden chains 
with which we bind ourselves to earth. 

1. Truth is a beautiful but simple , in which 

we should all seek to array ourselves. 

2. Money is the which the miser worships. 

3. He became involved in the of vice. 



METAPHOR. 175 

4. Honesty is a brighter than that which 

adorns a king's head. 

5. Roman eloquence was of late growth. 

6. When industry sows the , the harvest is 

abundant. 

7. Death is but a long , from which all shall 

one day awaken. 

8. He is travelling the of pleasure. 

9. The kindness of our Creator is from which 

all our blessings flow. 

10. Love is a to which opposition only adds fuel. 



LESSON LXXXIV. 

EXERCISE IN METAPHORICAL LANGUAGE. 

Convert the following figurative language into 
plain language which will express the same idea : — 
Example. The evening of life, 

A hard heart. 
In plain language. Old age. 

An uncompassionate heart. 

1. The morning of life. The veil of night. A 
fiery temper. A deep thinker. A light disposition. 
A cold heart. A icarm friend. 

2. We met with a freezing reception. 

3. Richard was now at the zenith of his glory. 

4. The earth is thirsty. 

5. The sea swalloios many a noble vessel. 

6. Ajax was the bulwark of the Greeks. 

7. His hard heart was melted by the speaker's fire. 



176 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

Convert the following plain language into figu- 
rative language that will express the same idea. 
The words in parentheses after each sentence are 
intended to suggest an appropriate figure. 

Example. The meadows are covered with grass. 
(Clothed, robes.) 

In figurative language. The meadows are clothed 
in their robes of green. 

8. The ocean was calm. (Waves, asleep, bosom.) 

9. In youth all things seem pleasant. (Morning, 
colored, roseate hue.) 

10. A true friend will tell us of our faults. (Friend- 
ship, mirror.) 

11. Let us renounce the dominion of the tyrant. 
(Cast off, yoke.) 

12. Guilt is generally miserable. (Wedded.) 

13. Hope is a great support in misfortune. (Anchor, 
soul clings, sea.) 

14. Homer's poetry is more sublime than Virgil's. 
(Genius, soars higher.) 



LESSON LXXXV. 

PERSONIFICATION. 

WnAT is Personification ? 

Personification is a figure by winch we attribute 
life, sex, or action, to inanimate objects. Thus, 
when we say "the land smiles with plenty," we 
represent the earth as a living creature, smiling. 

What effect has the judicious use of this figure upon style ? 



PERSONIFICATION. 



177 



It enlivens and embellishes it, by bringing 
striking pictures before the mind. 

What is meant by attributing sex to an inanimate object ? 

Speaking of it as he or she / thus we say of the 
sun, " He sheds his light over hill and dale / " of a 
ship, " How bravely she rides the waves ! " 



Make sentences, each of which shall contain one 
of the following words personified : — 
Example. "War. 



Sentence. 


War flings his blood-stained banner 


3 breeze. 




Peace, 


Religion, A ship, Spring, 


Health, 


Prosperity, The wind, Wisdom, 


Time, 


Industry, The moon, Vice, 


Fire, 


Pleasure, The waves, Night, 


Summer, 


Liberty, The grave, Death. 




A LIST OF SUBJECTS. 



The pupil is now prepared for exercises in any 
department of prose composition. As a great deal 
of time is often lost in the selection of themes, a 
list of subjects is here subjoined, each of which, if 
properly treated, will be found sufficient for one 
exercise. They have been so arranged, as far as 
possible, as to make the progress in difficulty regu- 
lar, but exceedingly gradual ; and the author would 



178 



FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 



advise that they be taken in turn, in the order in 
which they are here presented. It will be well for 
the teacher to prescribe some limit of length — that 
no composition, for instance, contain less than 
thirty lines of manuscript. 

Before entering on this list of subjects, if there 
be any part of the book with which the pupil is 
not familiar, it will be best for him to review it. 



1. Write a letter to your 
teacher, giving an account of 
the manner in which you spent 
your last vacation. 

2. Write to a friend, describ- 
ing your sister's wedding, and 
the festivities on that occasion. 

3. Write to a cousin in the 
country, giving an account of a 
concert, the Museum, or any 
place of public amusement 
which you may have recently 
visited. 

4. Write to a parent, or other 
relative, travelling in Europe, 
about domestic matters. 

5. Write an answer to the 
preceding letter, in which the 
parent would naturally give 
some account of his travels in 
Europe. 

0. Announce in a letter to a 



friend that his brother whom 
you knew, and who resided in 
the same place that you do, is 
dead. Give an account of his 
sickness. Offer such consola- 
tion as is in your power. 

1. Write a note to a friend, 
requesting the loan of a vol- 
ume. 

Write a note, inviting a friend 
to spend the holidays at your 
father's house. 

Write a note, regretting that 
prior engagements will compel 
you to decline a friend's invita- 
tion. 

8. Write a letter to a mer- 
chant, applying for a situation 
as clerk, and stating your quali- 
fications. 

Write an answer from the 
merchant. 



DESCRIPTIONS. 



9. An Elephant. 

10. A Market. 

11. A Farm. 

12. A Canal. 

13. A Hotel. 

14. A Garden. 

15. A Manufactory. 

16. A Church. 

17. A Fire-engine 



18. A Dry-goods Store. 

19. Describe "A Steamboat" 
and " A Ship " ; tell wherein 
thev differ, and wherein they are 
alike. 

20. Treat in like manner " A 
Clock and a Watch ". 

21. A Bird and a Beast. 

22. A Man and a Monkey. 



LIST OF SUBJECTS. 



179 



23. A Snake and an Eel. 

24. A Horse and a Cow. 

25. A Sleigh and a Carriage. 

26. Describe the place ir 
which you live. 

27. A Thunder-storm. 

28. A Lake Scene. 

29. A Storm at Sea. 

30. The Country in Spring. 
81. Scenes of Peace. 



32. Scenes of War. 

33. Contrast between a Morn- 
ing and an Evening Scene. 

34. A Scene in an Auction 
Koom. 

35. The Good Scholar. 

36. The Idle Boy. 

37. The Intemperate Man. 

38. An Indian. 

39. Thanksgiving Day. 



NARRATIONS. 



Fiction* 



40. Adventures in California. 

41. An Encounter with Pi- 
rates. 

42. A Lion Hunt in Southern 
Africa. 

43. The Indian's Revenge. 

44. The History of a Pin. 



45. The History of a Bible. 

46. The History of a Cent. 

47. The History of a Shoe. 

48. The Story of an old Sol- 
dier. 

49. Robinson Crusoe. 



Historical Narrations. \ 

The Discovery of Amer- 



50. 
ica. 

51. The American Revolu- 
tion. 

52. The Reign of the Emperor 
Nero. 

53. The Invasion of Russia by 
Napoleon. 

54. The Crusades. 

55. The Reformation. 



56. The Crossing of the Red 
Sea. (Exodus, chap, xiv.) 

57. David and Goliath. (I, 
Samuel, chap, xvii.) 

58. Jephthah's Daughter. 
(Judges, chap, xi., verse 29.) 

59. Naaman, the Leper. (II. 
Kings, chap, v.) 

60. The History of Jonah. 



* For the Exercises in Fiction it will be necessary to draw on 
the imagination ; in some cases, it may be well for the teacher to 
assist the pupil with remarks on the subject. In the case of 
" the History of a Pin ", it is necessary only to imagine some of 
the scenes that a pin would be likely to pass through, and to re- 
late them as if the pin itself were speaking ; thus, " The first 
recollections that / have," &c. 

f In the Historical Narrations and Biographical Sketches, the 
pupil must obtain his facts from some history. He must clotho 
them, however, in his own language. 



180 



FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 



61. Washington. 

62. Franklin. 

63. Charlemagne. 

64. Alfred the Great. 

65. Shakspeare. 

66. Queen Elizabeth. 

67. Columbus. 



Biographical SJcetches. 



68. Julius Csesar. 

69. Alexander the Great. 

70. Homer. 

71. Moses. 

72. Ruth. 

73. Solomon. 

74. Daniel. 



75. 

76. 

77. 

78. 
cation, 

79. 

80. 
tune. 

81. 

82. 

83. 

84. 

85. 

86. 

87. 

88. 

89. 

90. 

91. 



94. 

95. 

96. 

97. 

98. 

99. 
100. 
101. 
102. 
103. 
104. 
105. 
106. 
107. 
108. 
ling. 
109. 



Spring. 

The Beauties of Nature. 
The Mariners' Compass. 
The Advantages of Edu- 

Evening. 

The Fickleness of For- 

Disease. 

Chivalry. 

Honesty. 

The Ruins of Time. 

Gambling. 

The Study of History. 

Youth. 

Winter. 

The Starry Heavens. 

Government. 

Old Age. 

Anger. 

Ambition. 

Contentment. 

The Sun. 

City Life. 

Life in the Country. 

The Life of the Merchant. 

The Life of the Sailor. 

The Life of the Soldier. 

Manufactures. 

The Spirit of Discovery. 

Newspapers. 

Freedom. 

The Art of Printing. 

The Influence of Woman. 

The Ocean. 

The Pleasures of Travel- 

The Wrongs of the Indian. 



110. Summer. 

111. Night. 

112. Death. 

113. Revenge. 

114. The Study of Geography. 

115. Music. 

116. The Moon. 

117. The Stars. 

118. Comets. 

119. The Earth. 

120. Day. 

121. Autumn. 

122. The Pleasures of Memory. 

123. The Sabbath. 

124. The Fifth Commandment. 

125. Virtue. 

126. Egypt. 

127. Snow. 

128. Mountains. 

129. Forests. 

130. Character of the Ancient 
Romans. 

131. Our Country. 

132. The Miser. 

133. Oriental Countries. 

134. Hope. 

135. Life. 

136. Rivers. 

137. Astronomy. 

138. Rain. 

139. Vice. 

140. Riches and Poverty. 

141. The Fourth of July. 

142. The Bible. 

143. Morning. 

144. The Art of Painting. 

145. The Mahometan Religion. 

146. The Applications of Steam. 



LIST OF SUBJECTS. 



181 



166. Peasant Life. 

167. The Sources of a Nation's 
Wealth. 

168. Truth. 

169. A Kepublican Govern- 
ment. 

1*70. Dissipation. 

171. Envy. 

172. The Attraction of Gravi- 
tation. 

173. Love. 

174. Nature and Art. 

175. The Progress of Civiliza. 
tion. 

176. Poetry. 

177. The Feudal System. 

178. Silent Influence. 

179. The Drama. 

180. The Mind. 



147. The Great West. 

148. Idleness. 

149. Gratitude. 

150. The Inquisition. 

151. The Advantage of Study- 
ing the Classics. 

152. The Hermit. 

153. Courage. 

154. Early Rising. 

155. Perseverance. 

156. Flowers. 

157. Modesty. 

158. Intemperance. 

159. Genius. 

160. The Orator. 

161. Peace. 

162. War. 

163. Patriotism. 

164. The Jews. 

165. The English Noble. 

181. " Whatever is, is right." 

182. " Beware of desperate steps ; the darkest day — 

Live till to-morrow — will have passed away." 

183. " There's a Divinity that shapes our ends, 

Rough hew them how we may." 

184. " Health is the vital principle of bliss." 

185. " Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate." 

186. " Be it ever so homely, there's no place like home." 

187. " Hypocrisy, the only evil that walks 

Invisible except to God alone." 

188. "Kings are earth's gods; in vice their law's their will, 

And if Jove stray, who dares say, Jove doth ill." 

189. " Sweet is the image of the brooding dove ! 

Holy as Heaven a mother's tender love ! " 

190. " The bolt that strikes the towering cedar dead, 

Oft passes harmless o'er the hazel's head." 

191. " Who by repentance is not satisfied, 

Is nor of heaven, nor earth." 

192. "Honor and shame from no condition rise; 

Act well your part ; there all the honor lies." 

193. " Suspicion is a heavy armor, and 

With its own weight impedes more than protects." 

194. "Treason does never prosper." 

195. "I love thee, twilight! for thy gleams impart 

Their dear, their dying influence to my heart." 

196. " True charity's a plant divinely nursed." 

197. " Good name in man and woman 

Is the immediate jewel of their souls." 



182 FIKST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 

198. " Sweet are the uses of adversity." 

199. " Man yields to custom as he bows to fate, 

In all things ruled — mind, body, and estate." 

200. " Experience is the school 
Where man learns wisdom." 

201. Honesty is the best policy. 

202. All is not gold that glitters. 

203. One to-day is worth two to-morrows. 

204. Birds of a feather 
Flock together. 

205. Great talkers, little doers. 

206. Keep thy shop, and thy shop will keep thee. 

ARGUMENTATIVE DISCOURSES. 

When the subject is given in the form of a question, the pupil 
may take either side. 

1. Is conscience in all cases a correct moral guide ? 

2. Do public amusements exercise a beneficial influence on 
society ? 

3. Does the study of the classics, or of mathematics, afford 
the better discipline to the mind ? 

4. Is a monarchy the strongest and most stable form of gov- 
ernment ? 

5. Did the Crusades have a beneficial influence on Europe ? 

6. Do the learned professions offer as promising an opening to 
a young man as mercantile life ? 

7. Is a nation justified in rising against its rulers ? 

8. Is a lawyer justified in defending a bad cause ? 

9. Is it an advantage for a young man who intends to become 
a merchant to go through college ? 

10. Do parents or teachers exercise the greater influence in 
forming the character of the young ? 

11. Is it best for judges to be elected by the people? 

12. Does the Pulpit or the Bar afford a better field for elo- 
quence ? 

13. Does the reading of novels have a good or bad effect on 
the community ? 

14. Do inventions have a tendency to improve the condition 
of the laboring classes ? 

15. Is raffling at church fairs wrong? 

16. Is the education of boys and girls in the same clas6es ex- 
pedient ? 

IV. Should there be a property qualification for suffrage ? 



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understood. Parsing is rendered an 
easy and pleasant task, if task it can be 
longer called. Punctuation is made very 
plain and intelligible. I think this trea- 
tise is destined to become a great favor- 
ite in our public schools, used either in 
connection with Quackenbos's Lessons 
in Composition or without them. The 
Series appears to cover the entire 
aeld." 



B. F. Morrison, Princ. High School, 
"Weston, Mass., writes : '• Ilaving for sev- 
eral years past used the author's Rhetoric, 
I was prepared to find a good Grammar. 
The examination did not disappoint me. 
It is characterized, like the former work, 
by admirable meffiod and great clear- 
ness and precision of statement" 

Rev. L. W. Hart, Eector of OoQeg* 
Grammar School, Brooklyn: "Your 
new Grammar has been very closely 
examined in regard to the plan and 
general execution of the work, and is 
perfectly marked by the same excel- 
lences which have made your 'First 
Lessons ' and your ' Advanced Course ' 
my favorite text-books for some years. 
It will go into use, like them, as my 
text-book in English Grammar." 



Illustrated Lessons in our Language. 

Designed to teach children English Grammar without its technicalities, 
in a common-sense way — intelligently, thoroughly, attractively. 

By G. P. QUACKENBOS, LL.D., 

AUTHOB OF "FIB8T LESSONS IN COMPOSITION," " BHETOEIC," ETC. 

16mo, 180 pages. 

" A student who goes carefully through this little book will understand the construc- 
tion of the English sentence better, and be readier at correct speech and writing, than 
If he had studied Lindley Murray or Goold Brown for three years." — N. Y. Daily Times. 




THE BOOK on Language. Devel- 
ops the subject by object-lessons on 
pictures. Does away with the formidable 
legion of inflections and conjugations, 
observations and exceptions. Substi- 
tutes for dry verbal parsing an ingenious 
course of inductive Exercises, which none 
can go through without learning how to 
handle language. Deals, in a new and 
improved practical way, with the prin- 
ciples of correct expression, analysis, punctuation, good style, oral criti- 
cism, business correspondence, etc. 

D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 549 & 551 Broadway, New York. 



D. APFLETON & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 



First Lessons in Composition, 

In which the Principles of the Art are developed in connection with 
the Principles of Grammar ; embracing full Directions on the sub- 
ject of Punctuation ; with copious Exercises. By G. P. Quack- 
enbos, LL. D. 12mo, 182 pages. 

These " First Lessons " are intended for beginners in Grammar and 
Composition, and should be placed in their hands at whatever age it may 
be deemed best for them to commence these branches. By a succession 
of pleasing and ingenious exercises, they teach the young student the 
use of words, and enable him to express his thoughts chastely, forcibly, 
and elegantly, to analyze a subject properly, and to produce successively, 
after given models, letters, descriptions, narrations, biographical sketches, 
essays, and argumentative discourses. 

This work, immediately on its publication, came into general use, and 
its sale has been steadily increasing ever since. Many teachers who had 
not before made Composition a regular branch of their course, on account 
of its dryness, and the want of a proper text-book, found it so easy and 
pleasant with the aid of these " First Lessons," that they at once intro- 
duced it, even among very young classes, with wonderful effect in devel- 
oping their intellectual powers. The Publishers have yet to learn the first 
place in which the work has not given entire satisfaction. 

From Tayler Lewis, LL. D., Prof, of Greek, Union College. Schenectady JT. T. 

"We cannot say that this book is the besto/ the kind, for we have MM not/, i no like 
i i, k V S ^ Sa , m ° SP 6 : , 1 " vstem of grammar and rhetoric. It commences with the 
alphabet, and ends with a brief, yet very clear and practical illustration of some of the 
highest rules of good writing. It may be studied bv the child who has just learned to 
read, win e, at the same time, it might be of no small sen-ice to many of the graduate* 
ot our colleges. J 

From Eichard S. James, Principal of High School. y<>rri«t,»r„. Ohio. 
"After a careful examination of the book, I am prepared to Bay that 1 know of no 
work equal to it for simplicity of arrangement, correctness of definition, and adaptation 
to the wants of schools. It is the work. 1 ' 

From G. W. Cxabke, A. M., Asso. Princ. of ML Washington < oil. Institute, JV. T. 

"It is calculated, in my view (better than any similar work with which I am 
acquainted), to render a practical knowledge of the English tongue, both more easy to 
acquire and more easy to impart." 

From the late Rector of the, Williamsburgh Grammar School. 
" -f or an elementary work on Composition, / know of none in any degree equal 

From Geo. E. Neff, A. M., Pres. Sonle Female Colli go. Mmfree*horn\ T<»». 
" It is the beet school-book on this subject that I have seen ; I would not do without 
tt for any reasonable consideration.'" 



B. APPLETON & CO:S PUBLICATIONS. 

Advanced Course of Composition and 
Ehetoric. 

A Series of Practical Lessons on the Origin, History, and Peculiarities 
of the English Language, Punctuation, Taste, the Pleasures of the 
Imagination, Figures, Style and its essential Properties, Criticism, 
and the various Departments of Prose and Poetical Composition. 
IUustrated with Copious Exercises. By G. P. QUACKENBOS, 
LL. D. 12mo, 450 pages. 
This work is an eminently clear and practical text-book, and embraces 
a variety of important subjects, which have a common connection and 
mutually illustrate each other ; but which the pupil has heretofore been 
obliged to leave unlearned, or to search for among a number of different 
volumes. Claiming to give a comprehensive and practical view of our 
language in all its relations, this " Advanced Course " views it as a whole, 
no less than with reference to the individual words composing it ; shows 
how it compares with other tongues ; points out its beauties ; indicates 
how they may best be made available ; and, in a word, teaches the stu- 
dent the most philosophical method of digesting his thoughts, as well as 
the most effective mode of expressing them. 

It teaches Rhetoric not merely theoretically, like the old text-books, 
but practically, illustrating every point with Exercises to be prepared by 
the student, which at once test his familiarity with the principles laid 
down, and impress them on his mind so vividly that they can never be 
effaced. 

Hon. A. Constantine Barry, State Superintendent of the Common 
Schools of Wisconsin, in a Report to the Legislature of that State, uses 
the following strong language in relation to Quackenbos's works on Com- 
position : 

" It would be difficult to point out in these admirable books any thing that we would 
desire to have altered ; they meet our wants in every respect, making no unreasonable 
draft on the time or patience of the teacher, and leaving him no excuse for neglecting 
to make composition a regular study, even with his younger classes. It is unnecessary 
to compare these books with others on the subject, for there ake none that approach 
them in clearness, comprehensiveness, excellence of arrangement, and above all in direct 
practical bearing. Affording an insight into the mechanism of language, they will 
hardly fail to impart facility and grace of expression, and to inspire a love for the beauties 
of literature." 

From Prof. John N. Pratt, of the University of Alabama. 

"I have been using Qhack^nbos on Composition and Ehetoric in the instruction of 

my classes in- the University, and I am persuaded of its great excellence. The l First 

Lessons in Composition, 1 by the same author, I regard as very useful for beginners. Of 

these two books, I can speak with the greatest confidence, and I do most heaktil* 

RBOOUUBND THEM to all." 



D. APPLETON & CO:S PUBLICATIONS. 



Quackenbos's School Histories of the 
United States. 



ILLUSTRATED SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
12mo, 538 pages. 

ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Beauti- 
fully illustrated with Maps and Pictorial Engravings. 12mo, 230 
pages. 



Y7HAT TEACHERS 

Sister M. Regis, La Porte, Ind. : 
"The Histories are excellent works, 
just the books to be placed in the hands 
of children." — J. R. Carothers, 
Shippensburg, Pa. : " Quackenbos's His- 
tory of the United States is an admira- 
ble work, excellent both in arrangement 
and style. The Primary History is a 
model in attractiveness.''' 

Rev. C. Reynolds, Lector of Trinity 
Church, Lawrence, Kansas: "It is a 
most delightful volume; and, were I 
teaching a dozen classes in United States 
History, I would use no other book but 
yours."— A. G-. Harrington, Princ. 
Union School, Canastota, N. T.: U I 
consider Quackenbos's History of the 
United States the veey best work of 
the kind for the school-room, and shall 
immediately introduce it." 

V. H. McDaniel, Supt. of Schools, 
Strafford, N. H. : " Your History is the 
best work of the kind I ever perused. 
Its beautiful typography, its correct or- 
thoepy of proper names, its well-exe- 
cuted maps, embracing the topography 
of the most important places mentioned, 
cannot fail to make it a universal favor- 
ite." 

Pres. Neff. of Soule Female College, 
Tenn. : " I have compared Quackenbos's 
History of the United States with sev- 
eral others, and am better pleased with it 
as a school-book than with any I have 
seen." 



THINK OF THEM: 

Prof. Metcalfe, Princ. of the Ladies' 
Seminary, Brooklyn: u Your History 
requires nothing but circulation among 
persons of taste to secure its introduc- 
tion universally." — Prof. Calender, 
of Franklin, Tenn.: "I know no letter 
school History of the United States; I 
use no other." 

J. R. Roche, Princ. of Baltimore Acad- 
emy: "With its clear and simple style, 
and the spirit of fairness in which it is 
written, it cannot fail being extensively 
used as a standard class-book in our 
schools."— R. F. Worley, Princ. of 
Boys' High School, Harrisburg, Pa.: 
"After a full and close examination of 
its merits, compared with those of other 
Histories, I have concluded to adopt it 
in my school." 

Edward Cooper, Trine. Brownsville 
Female Inst., and formerly Editor 2T. Y. 
Teacher : " I am using all Mr. Quacken- 
bos's works with the greatest satis/ac- 
tion. His uniform accuracy and per- 
spicuity give him the preeminence in 
the very difficult sphere of making good 
text-books for schools. His work has 
been so well done that I do not hesitate 
to introduce the Primary History upon 
the strength of his name." 

J. D. H. Corwine, Princ. of Classical 
Institute. Logansport, Ind.: "I shall at 
once introduce it as the best work of 
the kind on this important branch of 
education ." 



D. APPLETON & CO:S PUBLICATIONS. 

Quackenbos's Illustrated School History of 
the United States. 

12mo, 473 pages. 

The great advantage claimed for this work over others of the same 
class, is the interest with which the subject is invested. The student 
turns to his history lesson in this volume as a recreation rather than a 
task. The style, clear and simple, yet dignified, forcible, and often elo- 
quent, inspires the learner with a love of the subject, and a taste for 
historical reading in general. 

Quackenbos's History is very widely used, and gives general satisfac- 
tion. It has recently been adopted by the State of California, the cities 
of Baltimore, Cleveland, Lexington (Ky.), New Orleans, and multitudes 
of minor places, for their Common Schools. Many strong recommenda- 
tions of the work have been received, of which the following from Prof. 
W. E. Clifford, of Northern Indiana College, will serve as a specimen : 
" I do not know," he says, " when I have seen a school-book that has 
pleased me as heartily as does this. The study is generally a bore to 
students, on account of the dry, condensed itemizing employed by com- 
pilers. Mr. Q. selects the prominent points, and weaves them into an 
easy narrative that attracts the young mind with much of the charm of a 
fairy tale or of Robinson Crusoe ; yet in no instance does he violate his- 
torical truth to add zest to the story. Prof. Q. is the best author of 
school-books that I know.'''' 

From "W. H. Stttltz, Princ. Female High School, Easton, Pa. 
" Kegarding this as the best and most interesting manual of United States History 
we have ever had, we use it in our school. Its beautiful mechanical execution, its 
numerous and excellent maps and illustrations, and its scholarlike character altogether, 
give it a decided precedence, I think, over any similar work now before the public." 
From Wm. 0. Kogeks, Supt. of Schools, N'ew Orleans. 
" Our teachers, very generally, bear testimony to the many excellent qualities of 
Quackenbos's History of the United States, as a text-book for public schools." 
From Superintendents of Orange Count}/, Vermont. 
Resolved : " That we recommend it as better calculated to create and promote an 
interest in the important study of history than any other History of the United States 
with which we are acquainted." 

From J. Q. Foot, County Supt. of Schools, Rock County, Wis. 
"I can cheerfully recommend Quackenbos's Histories, as in my opinion the best in 
use. They are written in superior style, clear, concise, and attractive. The Primary 
has all the interest of a well-written story." 



Cornell's Educational Works. 



First Steps in Geography. 1 neat vol., prettily illustrated. Trice, 
40 cents. 

Primary Geography. Revised edition. Forming Part I. of a sys- 
tematic series of School Geographies. Beautifully illustrated. Small 
4to. Price, 65 cents. 

Intermediate Geography, with New Maps. Revised edition. Price, 
$1.30. 

The same. Old edition. Price, $1.10. 

Grammar-School Geography. 1 vol., 4to. Price, $1.50. 

Grammar-School Geography. Revised edition. Large 4to, 120 
pages. 31 pages of Maps. Price, $1.50. 

Physical Geography. Price, $1.40. 

High-School Geography and Atlas. Revised edition. Price, 
$2.60. 

High-School Geography, separate, 1 vol., 12mo. Price, 85 cents. 

High-School Atlas, separate. Price, $1.70. 

Cards for the Study and Practice of Map-Drawing. 4to. 
In printed cover. Price, 45 cents. 

Series of Outline Maps, in large size, well printed on fine stout 
paper, and all mounted on fine muslin, neatly put up in a Port- 
folio, and accompanied with a complete Key for the Teacher's use. 
Price, $13.25. 

Single Maps, each 90 cents. 

Double Maps, each $1.75. 

The Key, separate. Price, 50 cents. 



D. APPLETON & CO., 549 & 551 Broadway, New York. 



EDUCATIONAL WORKS. 



Literature Primers: 

English Grammar. By Dr. R. Morris. 

English Literature. By Rev. Stopford Brooke. 

Latin Literature. By Rev. Dr. F. W. Farrar. 

Philology. By J. Peile, M. A. 

Greek Literature. By R. C. Jebb, M. A. 

Bible Primer. By George Grove, Esq. 

Classical Geography. By H. F. Tozer, M. A. 

Shakspere. By Edward Dowden, LL. D. 

Studies in Bryant. By Joseph Alden, LL. D. 
Loekyer's Elementary Lessons in Astronomy. 

Astronomy. {Science Primer.) 

Marcet's (Mrs.) Mary's Grammar. 
Mark ham's School History of England. 

Marsh's Single Entry Book-Reeping, and Blank-Books for 
ditto. 

Double Entry Book-Reeping, and Blank-Books for 

ditto. 

Bank -Book- Keeping and Joint-Stock Accounts. 



Merivale's General History of Rome. 

Model Copy-Books, in Six Numbers. With Sliding Copies. 

Morse's First Book in Zoology. 

Mulligan's Structure of the English Langnage. 

Munsell's Psychology. 

Nicholson's Text-Book of Zoology. 

Text-Book of Geology. 

Biology. 

Otis's Drawing-Book of Landscape. 

Drawing-Book of Animals. 

Quaekenbos's Primary Arithmetic. 

Elementary Arithmetic. 

Practical Arithmetic. 

Key to ditto. 

Mental Arithmetic. 

Higher Arithmetic. 

Key to ditto. 

First Lessons in English Composition. 

Advanced Course of Composition and Rhetoric. 

Elementary History of the United States. With Maps. 

New American History. 

History of the Initcd* States for Schools. 

Primary Grammar of the English Language. 

English Grammar. 12mo. 



EDUCATIONAL WORKS. 



Quackenbos's Natural Philosophy. 12tno. 

Illustrated Lessons in our Language; or, How to 

Speak and Write Correctly. 12mo, cloth. 

Illustrated School History of the World, from the 



Earliest Ages to the Present Time. By John D. Quack- 
enbos, A. M., M. D. 1 vol., 12mo. 
Robbings (Eliza) Class-Book of Poetry. 

Guide to Knowledge. 

Science Primers: 

Chemistry. By Prof. Roscoe. 

Physics. By Prof. Balfour Stewart. 

Physical Geography. By Archibald Geikie, LL. D., 
F. R. S. 

Geology. By Archibald Geikie, LL. D., F. R. S. 

Physiology. By M. Foster, M. A., M. D., F. R. S. 

Astronomy. By J. Norman Lockyer, F. R. A. S. 

Botany. By Dr. J. D. Hooker. 

Logic. By W. S. Jevons. 

lnventional Geometry. By Spencer. 
Se well's First History of Greece. 18mo. 

First History of Rome. 18 mo. 

Spalding's History of English Literature. 12mo, cloth. 
Tappan's Elements of Logic. 
Taylor's (Bayard) School History of Germany. 
Taylor's Manual of Ancient and Modern History. 

Ancient History, separate. 8vo. 

Modern History, separate. 8vo. 

Webster's Elementary Spelliug-Book. 
Elementary Reader. 

Wilson's Elementary Treatise on Logic. Cloth. 
Winslow's Elements of Moral Philosophy. 12mo. 
loumans's (lass-Book of Chemistry. 

Hand-Book of Household Science. 

Toumans's (Eliza A.) First Book of Botany. 
Second Book of Botany. 12mo. 



D. APPLETON & CO., NEW YORK, 
Will send a Descriptive Catalogue 

Of English, Latin, Greek, Freneh, Spanish, Italian, Hebrew, 
and Si/riac Text-Books, to those applying for it. 



